What does rhetoric study and what should you learn in order to speak successfully in public?

How rhetoric works

In modern schools, rhetoric is taught mainly as an elective. In the compulsory Russian language lesson, we first of all learn the rules of spelling and punctuation; in the compulsory subject “literature” we write essays using thoughts that were invented and polished long before us, we develop written speech, and we place the development of oral speech somewhere on the periphery of the curriculum. Our poor teacher has no time for what to do: he needs to fill out papers for the ministry, reports, keep journals and do a lot of work that distracts him from his real work.

Therefore, today, when rhetoric is not a compulsory academic discipline (as it was in classical education), there are many misconceptions about what it is and how it works. Rhetoric is not verbosity and idle talk, not “beautiful speaking.” It requires knowledge, erudition, effort and training. Every speech that a rhetorician is going to deliver in public, he first prepares or thinks through.

The rhetorician does not sound like a nightingale - he speaks for people, and not for self-expression. He evokes the right emotions in his audience, tuning into cheerful and energetic communication. When giving a speech, he remembers that he is addressing people, and not a piece of paper with the text of the speech.

He controls the reaction of listeners, sees interested and indifferent, friendly and hostile. The speaker is not afraid of remarks from the audience and reacts to them calmly, confidently and in full control of himself - his facial expressions, gestures, voice. The rhetorician uses only literary words and expressions, without unnecessary foreign borrowings, and strives for a richness of words and expressions. All his phrases are connected, they are clear and precise.

The conclusion of the rhetorician's speech is energetic and optimistic. By raising his voice and finishing intonation, he shows that he has said everything he wanted to say and will not forget to thank you for your attention. The rhetorician is humane, therefore he does not say unnecessary things and does not torment people with his speeches. And even if the rhetorician loses, he loses with dignity. But most importantly, the rhetorician speaks from the heart.

The art of persuasion is a double-edged sword, since it can be used by both an honest person and a dishonest one. But to be a good speaker, we read from the ancients, one must first of all be a “good person.” It is important to remember that moral laws remain the same at all times, that the basis of our linguistic communication should be spirituality, morality, the concept of true beauty, that wit should be understood in the original meaning of the word as “a sharp mind,” and not just as humor.

There is also this advice: in order to learn to speak well, you must first learn to be silent. Knowing how to be silent, you begin to listen. Knowing how to listen, you begin to think. And check: are your thoughts clean or dirty?

Rhetoric

The concept of rhetoric as a science. Subject and tasks of rhetoric

The terms “rhetoric” (Greek rhetorike), “oratory” (Latin oratorare - “to speak”), “oratory” (obsolete, Old Church Slavonic), “eloquence” (Russian) are synonymous.

In the ancient understanding, rhetoric is eloquence, the theory of eloquence, the science of oratory. Rhetoric arose in Greece in the 5th century BC and developed into a system in the 3rd–2nd centuries. BC. and received its development in Rome in the 1st century. BC. The basis of rhetoric is considered to be the foundations of such sciences as philosophy, logic, pedagogy, linguistics, psychology, ethics and aesthetics. With the development of these sciences, the idea of ​​rhetoric also changed. In ancient Greece, rhetoric was defined as the art of persuading listeners. In Rome - as the art of speaking well and beautifully (ars bene dicendi). In the Middle Ages, rhetoric was considered as the art of decorating oral and written speech (ars ornandi). Russian rhetorical science traces the ancient Greek tradition of defining rhetoric as the art of persuasion.

The goals of rhetoric also changed. Ancient rhetoric was born from the practice of socio-political and judicial speeches. In the Middle Ages, rhetoric was focused on writing letters and religious sermons. During the Renaissance, it spread to the entire field of literary prose, became part of humanities education, and mastery of the basics of eloquence was considered a sign of high education and culture.

Currently, the term “rhetoric” is used in a narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, rhetoric is an applied linguistic science that studies the patterns of speech, with the goal of teaching people to speak language easily and beautifully. The linguistic dictionary defines rhetoric as a philological discipline that studies methods of constructing artistically expressive speech.

Rhetoric in a broad sense is called neo-rhetoric (the term was introduced by Brussels University professor H. Perelman in 1958) or general rhetoric. Its development is caused by the emergence of new linguistic sciences - text linguistics, semiotics, hermeneutics, theory of speech activity, psycholinguistics. Neorhetorics is looking for ways to practically apply these disciplines; it is being developed at the intersection of linguistics, literary theory, logic, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, and psychology.

In the theory of modern eloquence, the ancient original core is revived - the concept of persuasion, forms and methods of influence by means of oral and written speech are considered. The goal of the updated rhetoric is to determine the best options, optimal communication algorithms. For example, the roles of participants in dialogue, mechanisms of speech generation, language preferences of speakers, etc. are studied. Thus, neo-rhetoric is the science of persuasive communication.

So, the term “rhetoric” includes the concepts of “eloquence”, “skill of public speaking” and “oratory”. If eloquence means the ability to speak captivatingly, beautifully, and convincingly, then the skill of public speaking is a higher level, which presupposes, along with the ability to speak beautifully and convincingly, the ability to master the communication situation, knowledge of the psychology and sociology of the audience, etc.

Rhetoric taught and teaches how to communicate, logically and expressively present and develop thoughts, use words, how to use speech activity in personal life and public activities, how to speak in front of an audience. The theory of eloquence has always paid primary attention to oral, “live” contact.

Rhetoric as a science performs the following tasks:

1) search for optimal algorithms for communication and mutual understanding in the conditions of modern society;

2) study of the forms and mechanisms of speech;

3) formation of a linguistic personality;

4) improving speech culture;

5) improving speech self-expression;

6) modeling of communication processes.

Help from “Foma”. Samples of Russian oratorical classics

Famous judicial figures of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, F.N. Plevako, A.F. Koni, P.S. Porokhovshchikov, were distinguished by their judicial eloquence; academic eloquence - university professors, historians T. P. Granovsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, philologists I. I. Davydov, F. I. Buslaev, I. I. Sreznevsky - in the 19th century, N. I. Konrad, V. V. Vinogradov - in the twentieth century. Many church speakers were examples of spiritual eloquence: Metropolitan Philaret (Drozdov), Holy Righteous John of Kronstadt. We find examples of political eloquence among the Kiev princes, and among the associates of Peter the Great (Feofan Prokopovich), and in the proclamations of Alexander I, written on the occasion of Napoleon’s invasion, and in the speeches of figures of the early twentieth century - Stolypin, Witte and many others.

On the screensaver there is a fragment of the TEDxSydney photo

Rhetoric and speech culture

Speech culture is a discipline that studies the norms of literary and national languages, as well as the rules for the appropriate use of linguistic means of expression. Rhetoric and speech culture are interrelated concepts that ensure productive communication.

Private and general rhetoric

Rhetoric is divided into two categories: general and specific. General rhetoric studies oratory in general and is useful to any person.

Private rhetoric, based on canons and rules, studies the art of eloquence in various professional fields.

General rhetoric has sections:

• rhetorical canon;
• oratory - the art of public speaking;
• dispute - the art of apodictic discussion (conducting a dispute in order to achieve truth);
• conversation - a section that teaches how to conduct a private, social or business conversation;
• the rhetoric of everyday communication, which teaches you to recognize emotional and speech signals sent by your interlocutor and adapt to them;
• ethnorhetoric, which studies the characteristics of speech behavior of different nationalities.

The rhetorical canon of antiquity consisted of five parts:

• Invention (invention). Formation of an idea for a speech. Finding an answer to the question: What to say?
• Location (disposition). Drawing up a text plan to achieve the transmission of the main idea.
• Expression (elocution). Formatting speech using figurative language, text editing.
• Memorization (memorio). The speaker's choice of method of conveying information. Memorizing, taking notes.
• Pronunciation (accio). A speaker speaking to an audience.

At the fifth stage, the culmination of oratorical activity occurs and the ancient rhetorical canon ends. For the sake of improving oratory skills, one more point has been added to the modern canon:

• Reflection. It involves the author’s reasoning over his speech, searching for weak formulations and highlighting successful speech techniques.

The rhetorical canon can be divided into three stages:

• pre-communicative, including work on speech (invention, arrangement, expression, memorization);
• communicative, representing the interaction of the speaker with the audience (pronunciation);
• post-communicative stage, which is an analysis of the speech (reflection).

The basis of oratorical activity is based on three concepts - ethos, logos, pathos.

• Ethos implies the validity of speech by circumstances influencing the topic of speech (place, time, duration of speech);
• Logos is responsible for the logical component;
• Pathos includes the emotional and facial coloring of the performance.

The subject and tasks of rhetoric in the 21st century or why rhetoric is needed today

Our time is characterized by high technologies, a versatile, accessible, tirelessly developing education system. This is the age of information and communication. An individual’s communication abilities and desire for development determine success in all areas of life.

First of all, oratory skills will be useful to people in non-productive fields of activity - media workers, lawyers, psychologists, teachers, designers, sellers, etc.

But why do mechanics, doctors, and drivers need rhetoric? Everyone will find the answer to the following question separately: What kind of person does not need to be able to think and master his word?

Studying the basics of public speaking, psychology, and body language will be useful to everyone who strives for a full, comfortable life in society.
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Types of eloquence

There are five main types of eloquence:

• Socio-political type - diplomatic, socio-political, political-economic, parliamentary, rally and agitation speeches.
• Academic view - scientific lectures, communications, abstracts, seminars and reports.
• Judicial view - speeches of the actors in trials: lawyers, prosecutors, judges.
• Theological eloquence or spiritual appearance - parting words, sermons, solemn speeches of a church orientation.
• Social and everyday types of eloquence - table, anniversary, holiday or memorial speeches.

How to choose a topic

You need to choose a topic that can be developed during the presentation. The information must be important and understandable to the audience. How to speak, get to know your interests, upbringing, education, activities. Public interest depends on factors:

• interests of listeners;
• group and topical;
• specific and novelty of the topic;
• inherent elements of conflict.

Let's consider each factor separately.

1. Current topics: life, death, love, health, family relationships, money and property, profession, career and social status. Topics will be of interest to different audiences. The topic may cause danger in listeners, or it may form an idea of ​​vital elements. The main thing is to start the conversation with something important. For example, a meeting at an enterprise. If a speaker wants to captivate his audience, then he needs to start his speech with a salary. In this case, workers and employees will greet you with deep understanding. If this is a meeting at school, you should not start with money issues, it is better to start the speech with the children's progress.
2. Group interest is considered the basis for speech. The meeting takes place in a group where graduate students gather for an internship abroad. In this case, you need to start talking about national traditions, earnings, warnings and temptations. This will be interesting and useful information for students. If you speak in a work group, then you can consider issues about corruption of self-government, how to organize leisure time for young people.
3. Current interest. It is caused by current events, for example: elections, news of the day, a possible epidemic and how to deal with it, a referendum, and so on. Absolutely all people are interested in the issue of fair wages and timely payments. It is important to be able to address relevant topics in time when considering current topics. If the speaker is a representative of an insurance company, then the listeners are interested in the topic of how to insure property.
4. Specific interest is caused by listening and feeling. Start the conversation with specific things that surround you, for example, cars, animals, natural phenomena, food. All things have a close connection with work, convenience and entertainment. If you touched on the topic of smoking, then topics about the dangers of smoking will be interesting.
5. New topics are interesting to people. Listeners will learn about how people live in different countries, about their traditions, world travels, and the wonders of the future and past of the world. New topics must be supported by facts. If a person does not have an idea about the topic of the speech, he will not be able to understand and listen to it.
6. Conflicts in speech. This is one of the elements in prepared and formed speech.

The need for rhetoric in the development of linguistic personality

Speech activity, which is carried out in four types (speaking/listening, reading/writing), is the basis for the formation of an individual’s communicative competence - the ability to use language as a means of cognition and effective communication.

The development of all types of speech activity entails the linguistic development of the individual.

Definition 2

A linguistic personality should be understood as a person as a subject of speech activity, capable of understanding, reproducing and creating texts (statements) of varying levels of complexity and structure, depending on the goals and conditions of communication.

The contribution of rhetoric to the improvement of linguistic personality is as follows:

1. Development of speech goal-setting and planning skills (what goals the addressee wants to achieve in communication and by what means).
2. Formation of the ability to predict the content and results of speech activity.
3. Enrichment of vocabulary, expansion of ideas about the expressive capabilities of language due to the inclusion of tropes (lexical means of figurativeness), phraseological units, aphoristic combinations;
4. Expanding the range of syntactic structures used due to the possibilities of linguistic synonymy, figures of speech (expressive possibilities of syntax).
5. Fostering a culture of using non-verbal means of communication (gestures, facial expressions, pantomimes) in communication.
6. Development of skills to evaluate one’s own statement in terms of its correctness, communicative effectiveness, compliance with aesthetic and ethical standards of communication.

Public speaking

Oratory requires that the speaker and his audience be completely compatible with each other. After all, every audience is different and every audience needs a different speech.

If I speak in front of specialists, I should use more professional phrases and terms.

And if there is a conversation in front of an inexperienced audience, then you need to structure your speech more pedagogically. It's better to start with the most basic concepts and only move forward slowly.

If this is a conversation in front of a young audience ( students and academics

), then you should perform dynamically and be funnier.

But if we speak in front of professors and deans, then we need to be more serious and joke a little less.

And this is the most interesting thing about rhetoric! The same speech will be loved and a huge success in front of the same audience. However, this will completely reject the other.

It follows from this that a good speaker will always ask himself the question - who is sitting in front of me? Who is my audience and what are the characteristics of the target audience? What do they know and what would they be interested in hearing?

Such analysis is the speaker’s main weapon.

So if you have a presentation, always have different versions for different audiences. For example, for specialists, young people, beginners and the elderly.

How to convince your audience with arguments?

Arguments need to be made weighty, and not just listed. Usually, when people argue, they try to bring more arguments.

For example, they say this for economic reasons, this for political reasons, and so on. As a result, they do not develop their argument at all, but simply give an enumeration. They don't go deep.

And if we want to convince people, then it is very important to go deep and build a beautiful argument.

Types of arguments in rhetoric

Here are the main types of arguments in rhetoric:

• To logos is the statement defended by the speaker. It is considered a more correct form, as it is based on the true circumstances of the case.
• Towards ethos - it appeals to the participants in communication ( the speaker and the audience
  ). It is divided into two types: Towards authority - it is considered correct only on the basis of an authoritative source of information. This includes quotes and opinions of great people, the authority of a position, organization, institution, and so on.
• To the individual - highlights the personal qualities of another person. Everything is based on the personality of the opponent, and not on the essence. Mainly used when criticizing other people's statements. Divided into: Indicates that the opponent is acting contrary to the argument
• Getting personal ( criticism and insult
  )
• Explaining your opponent's point of view with his personal circumstances

Outline of a good argument

SEXI

is an argumentation scheme. These letters represent one element in the argument. Under no circumstances should he be forgotten.

S

(
statement
) - statement. For example, we should open a new branch in Ukraine. Or I think that you should pay me more for my work.

E

(
explanation
) - explanation or justification. That is, to what extent we can substantiate our statement. Unfortunately, many have a very short rationale. As a rule, 2 - 3 logical justifications.

But often it does not convince because the person does not understand the other person's point of view. Therefore, you need to give at least ten ( and preferably twenty

) offers.

The deeper the justification, the more likely it is to convince the interlocutor. But in fact, a third element of argumentation in rhetoric is still needed.

X

(
eXample
) - example.
It's always good to have a concrete example of what you're talking about. This could be a fictitious ( made up
) example. But it is desirable that it be from real life.

You give an example of a competing company that opened a branch in another country. Or you are talking about a colleague who received 10% more salary than you.

It is worth saying that the example is very simple in argumentation. It's much easier to understand. It also acts as evidence. If there is an example from life, then your abstract justification is not just some kind of theory. There is real life evidence for this.

I

(
impact
) - significance. It is worth explaining why what we say is not only correct, but also significant for the interlocutor.

You can imagine that we are talking about a formula that plays no role in life. But if we can show that this rule has great weight, then the person will change his thinking and action.

That is, it is not enough to simply explain and give an example why the statement is correct. At the end of the speech you need to say why this is important in everyday life.

Remember that the truth lies in the depths!

Therefore, the argument must be presented as if we are digging a deep hole. And the more information we provide with justification, example and significance, the more likely it is to convince.

Which arguments are especially effective?

There are hundreds of possibilities for argumentation and explanation. But still, the most effective type is an argument for benefit

. If we show some advantage, then the person will readily agree.

People have different needs and wants. For some, the most important thing is money. You can show that he will earn more or lose less. In this case, this argument will have the main force.

There are people for whom reputation is important. You can explain in the rationale that if you do this, then his reputation will rise. Then such a person will believe us faster.

There are people who believe in freedom. In this case, you need to prove that if you do this, then he will have more freedom. Then this person will believe us.

In general, focus not only on having a deep argument ( statement + justification + example + significance

).
But pay attention to what
the target audience interests

After all, there are a lot of arguments. However, only a few of them will truly convince the public.

And the important thing for the speaker is to recognize what the main benefit is for the audience. Because if he correctly finds the benefit, then the public will have a natural interest in believing the argument.

Afterword

There is a science in the world that has a proud name - rhetoric. It’s a pity, of course, but there are people who don’t know about its existence or its significance. So it is rhetoric that deals with issues of correct and beautiful speech, in the simplest language. It is rhetoric that sorts out mistakes in communication. In our opinion, it would not hurt to introduce it as a compulsory subject in schools. It’s just that, looking at today’s younger generation, it’s clear that many could definitely use it.

And in conclusion, returning to the question of the relevance of Aristotle’s statement, we can say that it is more than relevant. After all, if you think about it, being well prepared, having a decent vocabulary, being able to collect your thoughts into a single whole and convey them to the audience, taking into account the characteristics of the audience, is very hard work. But feasible. After all, as Cicero said:

“Eloquence is something that is more difficult than it seems, and is born from a lot of knowledge and effort.”

It was no coincidence that he put effort after knowledge. Only by understanding well why this or that knowledge is needed will a person try to master it.

Well, even if not all of us master the art of eloquence, we can and should speak beautifully, correctly, politely and clearly. This is precisely why Aristotle’s statement is still relevant today. People are gradually forgetting how to speak the way they were supposed to, and no matter how sad it may be, the fact remains a fact. But it’s in our power to fix everything. At least on a personal level. Is not it?

In the following articles on rhetoric, we will provide both instructive stories and techniques for improving your public speaking skills.

How to behave confidently during business conversations and public speaking? How to convince your interlocutor that you are right? How to manipulate the behavior of your opponents? How to turn a negative dialogue into a positive direction? These and other questions are answered by black rhetoric - a kaleidoscope of communication strategies and techniques. Black rhetoric is inexhaustible and does not recognize borders. The desire not to lose sight of the set goal is the main force that drives skilled masters of words. Learn to break the rules, do not be afraid to use your own feelings and the emotions of your interlocutors, use the power of persuasion and suggestion, train yourself in the ability to argue - and you will certainly achieve success!

Speaker's clothing

People are greeted by their clothes and escorted by their intelligence. Therefore, the first picture of a person is created in the first 20 - 40 seconds. First, what you are wearing is visible.

Before opening his mouth, the person we are talking to already has a first idea. So always dress nicely! This is not only good for changing the perception of your audience. But it is also psychologically beneficial for ourselves.

For example, there is an interesting experiment. One weekend people were told to simply run 30 minutes around the park. They had regular sports clothes. In half an hour they ran one specific distance.

The following week, the same people were told to run again. However, this time they were given the best sportswear from top brands. This time they all ran a much faster, longer distance in that half hour.

In general, we feel more comfortable in beautiful things. Because of this, we are more capable physically and intellectually. Therefore, pay attention to the speaker’s clothing. This is also one of the tricky techniques of rhetoric.

Why study rhetoric?

Oratory will help in:

• error-free construction of oral utterances;
• creating a rich vocabulary and competent speech;
• the use of literary techniques;
• maintaining an even voice;
• beautiful expression using emotional notes;
• deleting parasitic words and tautologies from speech;
• clear and understandable pronunciation of words.

Children will not be able to surprise with catchphrases or speak with controlled intonation. If you do this from childhood, the child will develop oratorical abilities and by the school years he will become an interesting interlocutor.

With the help of correctly delivered diction, it is easier to communicate with peers and convey the right thought to a person.

Rhetoric in business style

Speakers have repeatedly wondered what business rhetoric is all about? Business rhetoric has a name “private”. Its operating principle is based on studying the rules and patterns that are commonly used in dialogues.

Using the techniques of business rhetoric, the general pattern of business communication is revealed. You can formulate an oral presentation in a business genre (report, negotiations, business correspondence or telephone conversation). Rhetoric in business style has a thin border with document management.

How to prepare for a performance?

To properly compose a speech, you need to adhere to the rules. Each rule is a section of rhetoric:

1. Intention - directed to think in order to solve a problem.
2. Disposition - to correctly distribute thought.
3. Elocution is the linguistic design of prepared speech.
4. Memoria is a feature of memorizing oratorical speech.

Before the speech, formulate hypotheses (thoughts of the speech). The greater the amount of thought and knowledge, the more inspiration will come. If the topic was able to hook the speaker, then it will hook the listeners.

Work on your speech before your speech. Think, look for information and arguments. In a few days you can create a serious base based on ideas and facts.

The mood of the audience depends on the time and place of the performance. In everyday life, a person takes information seriously, but in a large audience the topic will seem boring. It is necessary to create an environment that will remove those present at the performance from routine and direct thoughts and actions in a useful direction.