Article on the topic: “Components of the human speech apparatus and their functions”

Definition of phonetics, various sections of phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language.
It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation. Depending on the volume of material that is the subject of direct research by phoneticians, general phonetics and comparative phonetics and private phonetics of individual languages ​​are distinguished. General phonetics examines the patterns characteristic of the sound side of any language. Comparative phonetics deals with identifying the common and special in the sound aspect of two or more comparable or compared languages. Phonetics of individual languages ​​studies the features of the sound side of an individual language as fully as possible. In turn, in the phonetics of individual languages, historical phonetics and descriptive phonetics are distinguished. Historical phonetics of a particular language studies the history of the sound means of a given language to the extent that it is reflected in written records in this language, dialect speech, etc. Descriptive phonetics studies the sound means of a particular language at a certain period of its history or in its present state. In phonetics, such private disciplines are distinguished as articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, perceptual phonetics, functional phonetics, or phonology, accentology, or the study of word stress, intonology, or the study of intonation. Articulatory phonetics studies the activity of the human speech apparatus, as a result of which sounds are produced. Acoustic phonetics studies the purely physical features (characteristics, parameters) of speech sounds in individual languages. Perceptual phonetics examines the characteristics of the perception of speech sounds by the human hearing organ. Functional phonetics, or phonology, studies the functions that speech sounds perform as part of the sounds that form the material, perceptual side of the meaningful units of language: morphemes, words and their forms. Thus, the terms phonetics and phonology cannot be equated: phonology is only a part of phonetics, a private discipline that studies the functions of speech sounds and phonemes. Among other linguistic units - grammar, lexicology - phonetics occupies an equal position with them as an independent science. It interacts primarily with grammar. This interaction is due to the fact that the same sound features of the sound form of linguistic phenomena turn out to be significant not only for the sound side of the language, but also for some areas of its grammatical structure. For example, certain types of alternations turn out to be morphologized, that is, they are used in the formation of different forms of the same words or different words from the same root morphemes. (cf. in Russian: wake up - buzhu, drive - drive, friend or in German: sprechen-sprach, stechen-stach. Such morphologized alternations of sounds are studied by a discipline that arose at the intersection of phonetics and morphology, called morphonology. As for phonetics , and for syntax the rules of phrasal intonation of specific languages ​​are very important, since each specific sentence is characterized by a certain intonation design.Therefore, the data obtained in actual intonological studies find the most direct application in works on descriptive syntax.

Structural components of speech

Responsible for speech function:

1. The sensory speech center is the perception of speech sounds, based on the sound discrimination system of the language; Wernicke's area in the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for this process.
2. The center of motor speech - Broca's area is responsible for it, thanks to it it is possible to reproduce sounds, words and phrases.

In this regard, in clinical psychology there is the concept of impressive speech, in other words, the understanding and presentation of oral and written speech. There is also the concept of expressive speech - that which is spoken out loud accompanied by a certain tempo, rhythm, and emotions.

In the process of speech formation, each person should have a clear understanding of the following subsystems of their native language:

• phonetics (what syllables, sound combinations can be, their correct structure and combination);
• syntax (understanding exactly how the relationships and combinations between words occur);
• vocabulary (knowledge of the vocabulary of the language)
• semantics (the ability to understand the meaning of words long before acquiring pronunciation skills);
• pragmatics (relationships between sign systems and those who use them).

The phonological component of a language means knowledge of the semantic units of the language (phonemes). Physically, speech sounds can be divided into noises (consonants) and tones (vowels). Any language is based on a certain distinctive feature; if you change one of them, the meaning of the word will change dramatically. The main semantic distinguishing features include deafness and sonority, softness and hardness, as well as stress and unstress. It is these features that act as the basis of the phonemes of the language system. Each language has a different number of semantic units, usually from 11 to 141.

The Russian language involves the use of 42 phonemes, in particular, 6 vowels and 36 consonants.

It has been scientifically proven that any healthy infant in the first year of life has the ability to reproduce 75 different shortest sound units, in other words, can learn any language. But, most often, children at the initial stages of their development are in only one language environment, so over time they lose the ability to reproduce sounds that do not belong to their native Russian language.

The structure of the human speech apparatus

The speech apparatus is a set of organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers the central nervous system, organs of hearing and vision, as well as speech organs. The organs of speech, or the speech apparatus in the narrow sense, include: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs. Based on their role in pronouncing sounds, the speech organs are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce certain movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus particularly important for their formation. The active organs of speech include: vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, posterior dorsum of the pharynx (pharynx) and the entire lower jaw. Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include the teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw.

Articulation of speech sound

To form each speech sound, a complex of work of the speech organs is required in a certain sequence, that is, a very specific articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce sounds. The articulation of the sound of speech consists of a set of movements and states of the speech organs - the articulatory complex; therefore, the articulatory characteristic of speech sound turns out to be multidimensional, covering from 3 to 12 different features. The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished: attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). An articulation attack is when the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. Exposure is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound. Indentation of articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state.

On the relationship between sounds and letters

One of the most remarkable discoveries of the science of language in the middle of the last century can be briefly formulated as follows: the establishment of differences between sounds and letters with the help of which these sounds are represented. Even the great founders of comparative historical linguistics of the first third of the 19th century - F. Bopp (1791 - 1867), Rask (1787 - 1832), Vostokov (1791 - 1864) - often mixed languages ​​and sounds and letters did not know how to clearly formulate the essence of the difference between them . And only in the second half of the century before last this distinction found general and indisputable recognition. Despite the fact that the nature of sounds is completely different from the nature of letters, nevertheless, these concepts are correlated. There is no unambiguous correspondence between sound and letter; if there was, it would be an ideal alphabet. A letter represents the designation of sounds in a letter.

Classification of sounds

The classification of speech sounds is based on the acoustic and anatomical and physiological characteristics of sounds. The starting point is to divide all sounds into vowels and consonants. The combination of vowels forms vocalism, and the combination of consonants forms consonantism.

Abstract “The structure of the voice apparatus and the principles of its operation”

Fayzullina Liya

Abstract “The structure of the voice apparatus and the principles of its operation”

VOICE MACHINE DEVICE

AND THE PRINCIPLES OF ITS WORK.

INTRODUCTION

The human voice is a unique phenomenon in its own way, both as an acoustic phenomenon and as an anatomical and physiological action, and also due to its social significance. The voice is as unique as fingerprints or the structure of the retina. A person's character is judged by his voice. It is known that the general impression of a person depends 55% on facial expressions, 38% on voice and only 7% on what this person says. When a man was once brought to Socrates, about whom he had to express his opinion, the sage looked at him for a long time, and then exclaimed: “Speak, finally, so that I can see you!” And indeed, how much meaning, in addition to words, lies in the very sound of the voice! Listen to the sounds of a stranger's speech. Don't the timbre of his voice, his manner of speaking, his intonation tell you a lot about his feelings and character? After all, the voice can be warm and soft, rough and gloomy, frightened and timid, jubilant and confident, malicious and insinuating, firm, lively, triumphant and with a thousand other shades, expressing the most diverse feelings, moods of a person and even his thoughts. The ability to speak and express one’s thoughts characterizes a person as a person. From a social point of view, the voice is not only a means of information and communication between people, but also a valuable capital if professional activities involve the use of the voice (for example, singers, spoken word artists, entertainers, onomatopoeic parodists, radio and television announcers, etc.). etc., as well as a kind of “instrument of production” (for school teachers, teachers of institutes and universities, lecturers, speakers, tour guides, dispatchers, telephone operators of help desks and people of many other professions). By the modulation of the voice, we can judge the mental state of a person, his behavior in various situations.The voice most fully reveals the character, mood and even spiritual properties of a person

VOICE MACHINE DEVICE

The human vocal apparatus is a complex multi-stage system.

a topic on the characteristics of which voice formation depends.

Voice is any set of sounds formed by the human vocal apparatus

(screaming, crying, laughing, speaking, singing). It is a complex of organs and systems involved in voice formation.

The mechanism of voice formation is centrally determined, i.e. in the cerebral cortex

there is a center of vocalization, but for the formation of a voice a stream of air is necessary

ha, without which the vibrations of the vocal folds are silent. The voice apparatus has

three peripheral sections interconnected and regulated by the cortex

brain: respiratory organs (lungs, bronchi, trachea, larynx with vocal folds (a weak primary tone of voice is formed in the larynx, supernasal tube (oral cavity, nose, pharynx, paranasal sinuses

BREATHE-HELPING MACHINE

The breathing apparatus consists of lungs, which are inflatable air reservoirs; respiratory tract - bronchi and trachea, i.e. windpipe; diaphragm is a muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity and is attached partly to the lower ribs and partly to the spine.

At rest (during exhalation), the diaphragm rises upward with a double-headed dome; when inhaling, it flattens, lowers, and the lungs fill with air. The ability to control the diaphragm is very important for singers. Thanks to its activity, professional vocalists have such characteristics as breathing support, singing vibrato, etc. Breathing also involves the abdominal muscles, which put pressure on the diaphragm during exhalation and the intercostal muscles of the chest, from the contraction of some of which the chest is compressed , from the contraction of others - expansion and inhalation.

Types of breathing

Depending on the participation of certain muscles in respiratory movements and during singing, they distinguish: thoracic, abdominal and mixed types of breathing.

Thoracic type - respiratory movements are carried out mainly due to contraction of the intercostal muscles. In this case, during inhalation, the chest expands and rises slightly, and during exhalation, it narrows and falls slightly. This type of breathing is typical for women.

Abdominal type - breathing movements are carried out mainly due to contraction of the muscles of the diaphragm and the muscles of the abdominal wall. The movement of the diaphragm muscles increases intra-abdominal pressure and when inhaling, the abdominal wall moves forward. When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and rises, which moves the abdominal wall back. This type of breathing is also called diaphragm breathing. It occurs predominantly in men.

Mixed type - breathing movements are performed simultaneously with the help of contraction of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. This type is most often found in athletes and singers.

LARYNX.

The larynx has a triple function - respiratory, protective and vocal. The larynx is a tube connecting the trachea to the pharynx. It occupies the front of the neck. The larynx consists of 5 cartilages and muscles. The largest cartilage of the larynx is the thyroid, and its size determines the size of the larynx. Low male voices are characterized by a large larynx, protruding on the surface of the neck in the form of an Adam's apple.

The upper opening of the larynx, the so-called entrance to the larynx, is formed by movable laryngeal cartilage - the epiglottis. When breathing, the larynx is free, and when swallowing, the free edge of the epiglottis bends back, closing the opening of the larynx. During singing, the entrance to the larynx is covered by the epiglottis. The larynx tends to be mobile, mainly in the vertical plane. The extrinsic laryngeal muscles raise, lower, or stabilize the larynx. These properties of the larynx are very important especially for opera singers.

In the middle, the larynx narrows, and at the narrowest point there are two horizontal folds, or ligaments. The opening between them is called the glottis. Above the vocal cords are the ventricles of the larynx, above each of which there is a fold parallel to the vocal cords. The superior ventricular folds are called false folds and consist of loose connective tissue, glands and poorly developed muscles. The glands in these folds provide hydration to the vocal folds, which is very important for the singing voice. During sound production, the vocal folds join or close and the gap closes. The ligaments are covered with dense, pearl-colored fabric. The ligaments can change their length, thickness, and vibrate in parts, which gives the singer’s voice a variety of colors, richness of sound and mobility. The sound resonates in the cavity above the larynx, in the pharynx.

The pharynx is quite voluminous and irregular in shape. The pharynx is separated from the palate by the so-called velum palatine. A small tongue at the back of the palate seems to form a double arch. The size of the pharynx can change due to movements of the velum and tongue. Articulation is also important for proper sound production. The structure of the vocal apparatus has individual characteristics in each individual case. Therefore, the pedagogical approach to each vocalist is very individual. When working with a singer, the physical state of the vocal apparatus, physiological structure and personal characteristics of the singer, psychological and emotional states are taken into account first of all. And based on the received idea, an individual program is drawn up.

The main task of the teacher is to select for each singer from his usual set of exercises exactly what he needs at the moment. Or, if none of these exercises are perceived correctly by the student, improvise on the fly exactly what will be understandable for a novice singer. It is important that the singer feels that he can achieve the right result, that his voice sounds better. He should enjoy his vocal lessons. Undoubtedly, the teacher must be careful not to force a successful result. The main thing is that the student realized and remembered the pleasant feeling when singing and felt his capabilities. Next time he will try to remember and reproduce all his successful moments.

RESONATOR AREA.

Resonators.

In acoustics, a resonator is a cavity enclosed in elastic walls, having an entrance hole and responding to certain sound tones. The system of cavities located above the larynx is called the supernatant. It includes the pharyngeal cavity, oral, nasal and paranasal cavities. Due to the resonance of these cavities, the timbre of the sound changes. These are the upper resonators. The lower resonators are the trachea and bronchi. They also affect the timbre of the voice. The feeling of the vibrations of the chest resonator by the singer indicates the fullness of the sound of the voice, especially its lower tones.

The sounds made by the vocal cords can be compared to a tuning fork. After the strike, the tuning fork is brought to the ear to hear, since the tuning fork sounds very quietly. But if you bring a resonator, for example, a glass jar, to the tuning fork, the sound will intensify. This example can be transferred to the sound of the voice: the ligaments are a tuning fork, and the head and chest act as resonators.

If we talk about the human voice as an instrument, then resonators are cavities surrounded by bone boundaries. Above the larynx are the cavities of the pharynx, mouth, and nose. In these cavities, resonance occurs, that is, the sound that appears in the larynx and comes from the vocal cords is amplified.

The cavities of the pharynx, mouth, and nose are like a continuation of the larynx and are called the “extension tube.” These are the so-called upper (head) resonators.

Those resonators that are located below the larynx are in the chest - the trachea, the bronchi are the lower resonators (thoracic).

A beginning performer needs an understanding of the nature of the origin and formation of sound. But understanding requires knowledge. Vocal teachers should explain these points to students. And to explain, you should yourself have an idea of ​​the processes of sound formation. You can demand for a long time and to no avail that the student raise the upper palate when singing. Or you can figure out for yourself that only the soft palate can be raised, and it is located further than the hard palate. Why "soft"? Yes, because it is really soft to the touch. And it can take the form of a yawn. And the hard palate is bone. And say it, don’t say it, it still won’t rise. And all this needs to be explained to a beginning vocalist. Explain that by nature one can have a very beautiful voice, a rich timbre. But there is the concept of “school”, “vocal school”. There are certain rules that a beginning vocalist needs to know. And in particular, know about resonators. And not only know, but be able to use them.

Registers

Resonators not only amplify the sound, but also give the voice a certain coloring - timbre, due to which the voices differ from each other. The upper part of our voice range is associated with the use of head resonators. Thanks to the head resonator, the sound becomes more flighty and sonorous. The lower part of the vocal range is associated with the use of chest resonators, thanks to which the sound becomes more spacious and compact. In the middle part of the range, the properties of both the head and chest resonators are mixed - this is the middle resonator.

Register is a part of the vocal range, the sounds of which are formed in a certain way and have a uniform color. And the vocal range is the volume of sounds from the lowest to the highest sound that the performer sings. The name of the register corresponds to the resonators that the singer uses when singing a certain part of the range. When singing high sounds, head resonators are used, and therefore this part of the range is called the head register. Low range sounds are sung using a chest resonator and are called the lower or chest register. When singing mid-range sounds, both head and chest resonators are used simultaneously and mixing occurs. This is the middle or mixed register, or, as they also say, “mixed” (for female voices)

Sound shaping

Sound originates in the larynx, but is formed in the resonator cavities due to the shape of the oropharyngeal canal and the resonance of the pharynx and oral cavity. That is, in order for the emerging sound to turn into various vowels that we can distinguish by ear, the resonating cavities must take on a certain shape corresponding to each vowel.

The nasal cavity does not change in shape, and the resonance, that is, the amplification of sound, does not change for this reason either. If you direct a stream of air into the nasal cavity when singing, the sound will become nasal. This is where the expression “singing through your nose” comes from.

The position of the oral cavities and pharynx can be changed using the articulatory apparatus - tongue, soft palate, lips. Therefore, the resonance of the oral cavity and pharynx can be changed.

The position of the larynx should not change when changing register. The larynx should be free, without tension. If this rule is followed, the sound of the voice in any range will be balanced, and not motley and motley.

To develop head resonance, sonorant consonants - l, m, n, r and vowel sounds - i, e, u, as well as the vowel e in combination with sonorous n, r, m - ne, me, re, help.

Operation of resonators

You need to know how to use resonators. How to check the correct operation of the resonators? If you use chest resonators, the chest cavity vibrates. You can feel the vibration by placing your hand on your chest. When using the head resonator, the bridge of the nose vibrates. You can touch the bridge of your nose and feel its vibrations.

These are physical sensations. But the vocalist must also develop imaginative thinking. Let's look at a few examples. We already know that

The voice appears in the larynx, but it should not be felt in the larynx, since in this case the sound will be compressed, guttural. You need to imagine that the sound originates in the chest, and then comes out. When singing high sounds there should be a feeling of lightness and flight. Imagine that the sound penetrates the soft palate and emerges from the crown and back of the head - this is the head voice. When singing medium sounds, imagine that the sound is flying out of the forehead, and low sounds are flying out of the mouth. The performer determines the point of the required resonator and mentally directs the sound to it. At this point, the sound figuratively gathers into a beam, into a cone. But these are all the figurative sensations of the performer.

Using resonators

The skill of using resonators correctly comes with experience, when the performer develops his hearing and learns to control his singing.

The ability to use resonators is the ability to direct sound to the required point where the voice sounds best: with head resonance, the voice acquires flight and singing in a high position - something that is valuable in the sound of the voice. Head resonance provides endurance to the voice. When singing using chest resonators, power, strength and concentration of sound appear.

When a teacher wants to achieve singing using upper, head resonators, he talks about the need to “sing into a mask.” Where is this mask located? Imagination comes to the rescue again. Imagine carnival participants whose faces are covered with masks. It is to this part of the face that you need to mentally direct the sound. To feel the mask, exercises will help - intonation with the sounds “m”, “n”. These consonant sounds, as well as singing with your mouth closed, will cause a vibration sensation on the lips and bridge of the nose.

There is an expression in the vocals - a fulcrum. What is it? Singing using upper, head resonators, ensuring singing in a high position - this is the highest fulcrum of sound.

And singing using the lower, chest resonators with proper singing breathing is the lowest point of support.

Correct voice formation requires the ability to use resonators. And for this you need the necessary knowledge that should be applied in practice.

STRUCTURE OF A CHILD'S VOICE APPARATUS

The development and structure of individual organs of the child’s vocal apparatus has a number of features that affect their functions. These features are:

— disproportion in the development of individual organs of the vocal apparatus;

- lack of gradual development and the presence of leaps in this process;

- the presence in the period of general development of the vocal apparatus of such intervals when the development of individual organs proceeds almost imperceptibly;

- different timing of the end of growth of different organs of the vocal apparatus.

The larynx of newborns of both sexes grows rapidly only in the first year of life. In boys, this is especially noticeable in the first 3 months, as well as in the 8th and 9th months after birth. In girls - during the 1st, and then at 4-7 months of the first year of life.

The true vocal folds behave differently from the larynx as they grow. The vocal folds grow rapidly until the end of the first year of life. Due to the uneven growth of various parts of the vocal apparatus, the child’s voice changes in its basic qualities - pitch, volume, timbre, range, registers, duration of sound.

There are two mechanisms of voice formation in ontogenesis: from 7 to 10 years in children, the falsetto mechanism predominates, in the implementation of which the anterior cricothyroid muscle takes a major part. Actually, the vocal muscle is not involved in the falsetto mechanism. It is in the formative stage.

From about 10 years of age, the internal thyroarytenoid muscle (vocal muscle) becomes independent and takes an active part in controlling the vocal folds. Thus, another phonation mechanism appears (chest, which is partially used at first. In children of this age, the so-called mixed mixed mechanism predominates in the formation of sound. In this case, the chest sound begins to emerge on the lower notes of the range, and the falsetto register is used on the upper notes. Vocal folds on the lower notes they completely close, but when moving to the upper notes, a narrow linear gap remains, characteristic of falsetto.

From this age period, the internal vocal muscles, as well as the external muscles of the larynx, are the main ones in the process of controlling the vocal folds. The anterior thyroid cricoid muscles also take a large part in this. They regulate the clearance of the glottis during phonation, change the sound quality by contracting and tensioning the vocal folds as a whole or their individual parts. Other muscles of the larynx also participate in this act to one degree or another, receiving impulses from the central nervous system in accordance with one or another task.

The anatomical and physiological features of the children's vocal apparatus also include a rather high position of the larynx; a large number of mucous glands in all parts of the larynx, as well as lymphatic and connective tissue, which at an early age replaces the missing internal vocal muscles.

The voice of a newborn, obeying unconditional reflex mechanisms, varies in strength, but is always the same in pitch and almost does not differ in timbre in all children of both sexes (asexuality). During this period, maternal hormones circulate in the body. The main color of a child's voice is its “silverness”. Every 2-3 years, the voice changes its qualities from “silver” with a sound range of 5-6 notes; it becomes rich, acquires a full sound, a “metallic” tint, the range increases to 11-12 notes, and in the 6th year it is equal to a seventh .

Signs that distinguish vowel sounds from consonants

1. The main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel sound always forms the top of a syllable and is a sonant; a consonant accompanies a sonant and is a consonant. 2. The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists of different tensions of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of formation. 3. During the formation of vowels, the voice dominates over noise, while during the formation of most consonants (with the exception of sonorants), the relationship is the opposite: noise dominates over the voice. The presence of two types of speech sounds (vowels and consonants), differing in articulation, forces a classification of vowels to be made separately from the classification of consonants.

Lecture 2 phonetics. Aspects of considering speech sounds. Phonetic division of speech.

Plan

1. Phonetics: definition, subject, object.
2. Acoustic aspect of phonetics.
3. The structure of the speech apparatus, articulation.
4. Classification of speech sounds.
5. Syllable and syllable division.
6. Prosodic means of language.

1. Phonetics

is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation.

Depending on the volume of material that is the subject of direct research by phoneticians, general phonetics,
comparative phonetics
and
private phonetics
of individual languages ​​are distinguished.
General phonetics
examines the patterns characteristic of the sound side of any language.
Comparative phonetics
deals with identifying the common and special in the sound aspect of two or more comparable or compared languages.
Phonetics of individual languages
​​studies the features of the sound side of an individual language as fully as possible.
In turn, in the phonetics of individual languages, historical phonetics and

descriptive
Historical phonetics of a particular language studies the history of the sound means of a given language to the extent that it is reflected in written records in this language, dialect speech, etc. Descriptive phonetics studies the sound means of a particular language at a certain period of its history or in its present state.

In phonetics, such particular disciplines as acoustic phonetics are distinguished; articulatory phonetics; perceptual phonetics; functional phonetics, or phonology; accentology, or the study of verbal stress; intonology, or the study of intonation:

• acoustic

  phonetics studies the purely physical features (characteristics, parameters) of speech sounds of individual languages;

• articulatory

  phonetics studies the activity of the human speech apparatus, the physiology of speech, as a result of which sounds are produced;

• perceptual

  phonetics examines the peculiarities of perception of speech sounds by the human hearing organ;

• functional

  phonetics, or
  phonology ,
  studies the functions that speech sounds perform as part of the sounds that form the material, perceptual side of the meaningful units of language: morphemes, words and their forms.

Among other linguistic units - grammar, lexicology - phonetics occupies an equal position with them as an independent science. It interacts primarily with grammar. This interaction is due to the fact that the same sound features of the sound form of linguistic phenomena turn out to be significant not only for the sound side of the language, but also for some areas of its grammatical structure. For example, certain types of alternations turn out to be morphologized, that is, they are used in the formation of different forms of the same words or different words from the same root morphemes (cf. in Russian: wake up - buzhu, drive - drive, friend - friend

or in German:
sprechen - sprach , stechen - stach
).

2. Acoustic aspect of phonetics.

The section of phonetics
“speech acoustics”
studies the physical characteristics of speech.

Speech sounds

- These are vibrations in the air caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

Tone

- These are periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise

– these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Vowels consist of tone, i.e. voices in the absence of an obstacle, and consonants made of noise (or noise and tone), i.e. involving an obstacle.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength and duration.

Pitch

is the number of oscillations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have a shorter wavelength. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range from 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one vibration per second. Sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds) are not perceived by humans, unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and higher, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).

The main frequencies of human communication are usually in the range of 500–4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds from 40 to 1700 Hz. For example, bass usually starts at 80 Hz, and soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural frequency of vibration of the eardrum is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for humans - the sound of the sea, the forest - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.

The range of vibrations of the sounds of a man's speech is 100 - 200 Hz, in contrast to women, who speak with a frequency of 150 - 300 Hz (since men's vocal cords are on average 23 mm, and women's are 18 mm, and the longer the cords, the lower the tone) .

The strength of sound (loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the amount of deviation from the original position). The amplitude of vibrations is created by the pressure of the air stream and the surface of the sounding body.

The strength of sound is measured in decibels. Whisper is defined as 20 - 30 dB, normal speech - from 40 to 60 dB, the volume of a scream reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing at up to 110–130 dB. The Guinness Book of World Records records a record for a fourteen-year-old girl who screamed over a taking off airliner with an engine volume of 125 dB. When the sound intensity exceeds 130 dB, ear pain begins.

Different speech sounds have different strengths. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the greater the power. But, for example, in the word “saw” the vowel [i], being unstressed and generally having less power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed [a]. The fact is that higher sounds seem louder, and the sound [i] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitches are perceived as sounds of different volumes. It should be noted that sound intensity and loudness are not equivalent, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by a person's hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is background,

equal to a decibel.

Sound duration

(oscillation time) is measured in milliseconds.

Sound has a complex composition. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).

Base tone

is a tone generated by vibrations of the entire physical body.

Overtone

- a partial tone generated by vibrations of parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone (“upper tone”) is always a multiple of the fundamental tone, hence its name. For example, if the fundamental tone is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, etc. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of a body when it perceives a sound wave having a frequency that is the same as the frequency of vibration of this body. The overtones are usually weak, but are amplified by resonators. Speech intonation is created by changing the frequency of the fundamental tone, and timbre is created by changing the frequency of overtones.

Timbre

- This is a kind of coloring of sound created by overtones. It depends on the relationship between the fundamental tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, distinguish the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. Each person's timbre is strictly individual and unique, like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in forensic science.

Formanta

is an overtone amplified by a resonator that characterizes a given sound. Unlike the vocal tone, the formant is not formed in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it persists even when whispering. In other words, this is the band of concentration of sound frequencies that receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of resonators. With the help of formants we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important in the spectrum of a vowel sound are the first two formants, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person’s voice is characterized by its own voice formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.

The formant characteristics of consonants are very complex and difficult to determine, but vowels can be characterized with some reliability using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of tongue elevation, and the second is the degree of tongue advancement). It should only be borne in mind that the quantitative data presented are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the vowel ratios, despite the discrepancy in numbers, remain approximately the same for everyone, i.e. the first formant, for example, of the vowel [i], will always be smaller than that of [a], and the second is larger.

The frequency characteristics of sounds are flexible, since the formants are correlated with the lowest fundamental tone, and it is also changeable. In addition, in live speech, each sound may have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound may differ from the middle and ending in formants. It is very difficult for a listener to identify sounds isolated from a stream of speech.

3. The structure of the speech apparatus.

The branch of phonetics that studies the structure of the speech apparatus is called
anthropophonics,
or
the physiology of speech.
She studies the biological characteristics of speech, i.e. the work performed by a person when pronouncing (articulating) or perceiving speech sounds.

The structure of the human speech apparatus.

When communicating using language, a person pronounces sounds and perceives them. For these purposes, he uses the speech apparatus - a set of organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers:

1. central nervous system,
2. organs of hearing and vision,
3. speech organs.

The central nervous system is represented by the brain, which, through the motor speech center (Broca's area), sends certain impulses through the nervous system to the organs of speech production (articulation).

The speech organs, or speech apparatus in the narrow sense, include:

• breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm and chest), which creates an air stream that provides the formation of sound vibrations necessary for articulation;

• organs of pronunciation (articulation) of speech, which are usually also called organs of speech (in the narrow sense).

According to their role in pronouncing sounds, the speech organs are divided into active and passive;

— active

the organs of speech produce certain movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus particularly important for their formation. The active organs of speech include the vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, posterior dorsum of the pharynx (pharynx) and the entire lower jaw;

— passive

the organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include the teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw.

Vocal cords

are located in the larynx. The larynx is the upper part of the trachea and consists of the following three types of cartilage connected to each other:

• cricoid cartilage,

  located below other cartilages. It is narrower in front and wider in back;

• thyroid cartilage,

  located at the top in front (in men it acts like an Adam’s apple, or Adam’s apple, because the two plates forming it make an angle of 90 degrees, and in women - 110 degrees), covers the cricoid cartilage in front and on the sides;

• paired arytenoid cartilage

  in the form of two triangles located at the back from above. They can move apart and move.

Between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilage there are mucous folds, which are called the vocal cords.

They converge and diverge with the help of arytenoid cartilages, forming a glottis of various shapes.

• During non-speech breathing and when pronouncing dull sounds, they are spread apart and relaxed. The gap has the shape of a triangle.

• When pronouncing vowels, sonorants, and voiced consonants, they first tense and come together, and then move apart and move, allowing a push of air to pass through. At the same time they vibrate.
• When pronouncing English or German [h] and some guttural sounds (for example, in Arabic), as well as when whispering, they are close together, but relaxed, and air passes through them with difficulty. The vocal cords do not vibrate.

In men, as mentioned above, the vocal cords are longer (23 mm on average) and thicker than in women (18 mm).

A person speaks as he exhales, while he inhales only the donkeys shout: “ya.” Inhalation is also used when yawning.

People with a larynx amputation are also able to speak with a so-called esophageal voice, using muscle folds in the esophagus as a larynx.

For the formation of sound, the oral (epiglottic) cavity is of great importance, in which noises and resonator tones are formed, which are important for creating timbre. The size and shape of the mouth and nose play a big role.

The tongue is a mobile organ that performs two speech functions: 1) depending on its position, it changes the shape and volume of the resonator; 2) creates obstacles when pronouncing consonants.

The lips and tongue also serve as a barrier.

The soft palate in an elevated position blocks the entrance to the nasal cavity, and sounds will not have a nasal overtone. If the soft palate is lowered, then the air stream passes freely through the nose and as a result, nasal resonance occurs, characteristic of nasal vowels and sonants.

Russian and Latin names of speech organs and their derivatives

Articulation of speech sound.

Articulation of speech sounds

- this is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce sound. To form each speech sound, a complex of work of the speech organs is required in a certain sequence, that is, a very specific articulation is needed.

The articulation of the sound of speech consists of a set of movements and states of the speech organs - the articulatory complex; therefore, the articulatory characteristic of speech sound turns out to be multidimensional, covering from 3 to 12 different features.

The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished:

1. attack (excursion)

   consists in the fact that the organs of speech move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound;

2. excerpt

   - this is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound;

3. indentation (recursion)

   – articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state.

4. Classification of speech sounds

is based on the acoustic and anatomical-physiological characteristics of sounds.

Each language typically contains about 50 speech sounds.

1) From an acoustic point of view, they are divided into vowels,

consisting of tone, and
consonants
formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, air passes freely, without obstacles, and when articulating consonants, there is always some kind of obstacle and a certain place of formation - the focus.

During the formation of vowels, the voice prevails over noise, while during the formation of most consonants (with the exception of sonorants), the relationship is the opposite: noise dominates over the voice. The presence of two types of speech sounds (vowels and consonants), differing in articulation, forces a classification of vowels to be made separately from the classification of consonants.

As their name suggests, vowels are formed with the help of the voice, i.e. they are always sonorous (from the Latin sonus

- sound).

2) The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists of different tensions of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of formation.

3) But the main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel sound always forms the top of a syllable and is a sonant; a consonant accompanies a sonant and is a consonant.

Vowel cluster

in the language it is called
vocalism,
and
the set of consonants is called consonantism.
Vowel classification

Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:

1) row,

those.
depending on which part of the tongue is raised during pronunciation: when the front part of the tongue is raised, front vowels
are formed (
i, e
), middle -
middle
(
s
), back -
back
vowels (
o, y
);

2) climb

, i.e.
depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of varying volumes; there are differences between open
or
wide
a
)
and closed

that
narrow
i
y )
(in some languages, for example, in German and French, sounds that are close in articulation differ only in small difference in the rise of the tongue. Compare open [b] in the words
derm
(German);
fait , pret
(French); and closed [e] in the words
Meeg
(German);
fee , pre
(French));

3) labialization

– participation of the lips in the articulation of sound: depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by rounding of the lips extended forward or not, rounded (labial, labialized) are distinguished, for example. [o], [u] and unrounded vowels, e.g. [A];

4) nasalization

– the presence of a special “nasal” timbre that occurs depending on whether the velum is lowered, allowing a stream of air to pass simultaneously through the mouth and nose, or not. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages ​​are non-nasal (formed when the palatine curtain is raised, blocking the path of air flow through the nose), but in some languages ​​(French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic), nasal vowels are widely used along with non-nasal vowels;

5) longitude:

in a number of languages ​​(English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or similar articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are contrasted in duration of pronunciation, i.e.
they differ, for example, short vowels: , , [o], [i] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], [o:], [i:].

In Latin and ancient Greek, this phenomenon is used in versification: various poetic meters (hexameter, dactyl) are based on the ratio of long and short syllables, which correspond to modern poetic meters, which are based on dynamic stress.

Classification of vowel sounds.

The basis for the classification of vowels is the row and rise of the tongue, as well as the work of the lips. Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally along the row, that is, along the part of the tongue that is raised when pronouncing a given sound. There are three rows, and accordingly three types of speech sounds, which are front, middle and back. Front vowels - and e; middle row - s; back row at o a. Vertically, vowels differ in their rise - that is, in the degree of elevation of one or another part of the tongue during the formation of a given vowel. There are usually three lifts - upper, middle and lower. In the Russian language, high vowels include u y, middle vowels e o, and low vowels a.

According to the position of the lips, vowels are divided into labial, that is, in the formation of which the lips take part - o u (labialized, rounded) and unglobbed, that is, in the formation of which the lips do not take part - a e and y. Labial vowels are usually back. Nasalization. In a number of languages, there are nasal vowels, for example, in French and Polish. Old Church Slavonic also featured nasal vowels, which in Cyrillic were represented by special letters: yus large, or o nasal and yus small, or e nasal. Articulation of nasal vowels occurs when raised? the palatine curtain and the lowered back of the tongue, so that the air stream simultaneously and equally enters the oral and nasal cavity.

The relationship of speech pathologies with dentofacial anomalies and their myofunctional correction

Yu. N. Belousov Candidate of Medical Sciences, orthodontist, assistant at the Department of Pediatric Dentistry of Tyumen State Medical Academy (Tyumen), doctoral student at the Department of Pediatric Dentistry of NSMU (Novosibirsk)

I. L. Marakulina orthodontist, assistant at the Department of Pediatric Dentistry of Tyumen State Medical Academy (Tyumen)

Yu. R. Bikshanova 5th year student of the Faculty of Dentistry of Tyumen State Medical Academy (Tyumen)

P. A. Zhelezny , MD, Professor, Head of the Department of Pediatric Dentistry, NSMU (Novosibirsk), President of the Regional StAR (Novosibirsk)

Speech is the main means of communication, the basis of thinking. The correct functioning of speech abilities is determined by the correct functions of the speech organs, normal hearing, sufficient communication with adults, and a full-fledged speech environment. The maxillofacial region, like all other systems of the human body, is a functional self-regulating system capable of adapting to changing external conditions. But improper distribution of muscle pressure during chewing, as well as in violation of the functions of breathing, swallowing and speech formation, is the main cause of most anomalies and deformations of the maxillofacial area. Recently, myofunctional disorders of the maxillofacial region have become a serious problem and are increasingly occurring in both children and adults.

Often, a speech therapist is the first person parents of children with myofunctional problems turn to for help because speech impairment bothers them. With such disorders, it is very important to promptly diagnose the child correctly and explain to parents the root cause of the disorders as a complex problem, and not just as a speech problem. This may require consultation and assistance from other specialists - an orthodontist, a dental surgeon, an otolaryngologist.

Among the most common anomalies of the structure of the oral cavity that require correction in preschool age are: abnormal attachments of the frenulum of the tongue, upper and lower lips, small vestibule of the oral cavity, supernumerary teeth. A shortened frenulum of the tongue is sometimes detected in parents or close relatives of children, which can be considered a family trait. At the same time, malocclusions can be similar, and then the sounds “r”, “l”, “s”, as well as hissing sounds with a shortened frenulum of the tongue are usually pronounced incorrectly.

It is important to take into account the degree of dependence of the correct articulation of sound on a specific anomaly in the structure of the articulatory apparatus. Thus, with mechanical dyslalia, it is often necessary to first correct anomalies in the structure of the child’s dental system for subsequent correct production of sounds.

Speech pathologies are a widespread problem today. The joint work of doctors and teachers in children's preventive institutions makes it possible to early identify such conditions as deviations from the norm in children's health, congenital and acquired diseases that affect the development of speech and contribute to speech pathology. However, despite the fact that today everything is available to carry out preventive medical work: orthodontists who are proficient in new myofunctional treatment methods, the enthusiasm of doctors who want to carry out this work, the problem remains relevant due to low educational work: parents do not know how to deal with dental anomalies necessary from a very early age for children. Often, it is the speech therapist who is the first point of contact for parents of children with myofunctional abnormalities, since speech dysfunction for parents is the most obvious aspect of the child’s developmental delay. In most cases, speech pathologies are in one way or another associated with congenital and acquired pathologies of the speech organs, therefore, one cannot limit oneself to examining a child starting classes with a speech therapist only with a psychiatrist, otolaryngologist and ophthalmologist; a thorough examination by an orthodontist is necessary in order to timely identify disorders in the development of the dental system.

Speech impairment in children is diagnosed after the age of 3; deviations appear precisely during the period of formed occlusion, when children develop bad habits. Speech development is a complex process, the correct implementation of which requires normal function of the brain, nerve pathways and the correct development of the organs that form the speech apparatus. These include: respiratory organs, chewing organs, vibrators (vocal cords), resonators (larynx, oral cavity and nose) and articulators (tongue, lips, teeth, lower jaw, soft palate).

Mechanical dyslalia is a violation of sound pronunciation with normal hearing and intact innervation of the speech apparatus, associated with deviations in the structure of the peripheral speech apparatus. The following types of mechanical dyslalia are distinguished: palatal, lingual, dental and labial. Palatolalia is associated with pathology of the palate, glossolalia - with an anomaly of the tongue or a violation of its functions, dentolia - with a violation of the shape or position of the teeth.

Impaired pronunciation of the sound [p] is observed with a shortened frenulum of the tongue, narrowing of the jaws, deep bite, and impaired mobility of the tip of the tongue. For children aged 3 to 5 years, training using a plate with a bead is effective; breathing exercises are used to normalize nasal breathing. If necessary, plastic surgery of the lingual frenulum is prescribed at the age of 2-2.5 years. For children over 5 years old, the use of a T4K trainer is recommended.

Among the most common anomalies of the structure of the oral cavity that require correction in preschool age are the following: abnormal attachments of the frenulum of the tongue, upper and lower lips, small vestibule of the oral cavity, supernumerary teeth.

The pronunciation of the sound [t] is characterized by the withdrawal of the lower jaw simultaneously with the explosion of the lingual-palatal seal, producing the sound [t]. The distance between the upper and lower incisors is up to 5 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised to the necks of the upper incisors and forms a strong closure when pronouncing the sound [t] and less strong when pronouncing the sound [d]. Impaired pronunciation of these sounds occurs with an open bite, inserting the tongue between the dentition and improper swallowing. For children under 5 years of age, it is recommended to use a tongue plate with a flap; during the day, for 30 minutes, warm up the muscles that lift the tongue; for this purpose, a vestibular plate with a bead is used, as well as an Infant children's trainer. For children over 5 years old, the T4K myofunctional trainer is recommended for effective speech correction.

When pronouncing the hissing sounds [ш] and [ж], the lips are slightly protruded forward; there should be a minimum distance between them, as well as between the upper and lower teeth. A gap is formed between the hard palate and the tongue, the lateral edges of the tongue close with the upper chewing teeth, and the extended tip of the tongue is raised, but does not come into contact with the hard palate. Distortion of hissing sounds [w] and [zh] is facilitated by deep bite, prognathism, and lingual tilt of the teeth. We recommend comprehensive training using a vestibular plate with a bead and a T4K myofunctional trainer.

The articulation of the sounds [s] and [z] is carried out as follows: the upper and lower incisors are brought closer together by approximately 1-1.5 mm and are located either in the same frontal plane, or the lower incisors are slightly more lingual. The tongue in the middle part is raised and expanded. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower incisors, and its lateral edges adjoin the palatal surfaces of the upper lateral teeth. A longitudinal V-shaped groove is formed in the middle of the back of the tongue. Passing through it, a stream of air creates a pronounced whistling sound. Impaired clarity of sounds [s] and [z] is caused by labiodental stigmatism - a violation of the correct pronunciation of whistling sounds. When pronouncing the sound [s], the lower lip is pulled towards the upper incisors, “deforming” the speech gap. With interdental sigmatism, the tongue is placed between the upper and lower incisors and instead of a whistling tone, a lisp is acoustically formed. Dental sigmatism is characterized by a movement of the tip of the tongue in which it, resting against the upper incisors, closes the exit of the air stream.

Impaired pronunciation of sounds is observed with open bite, crossbite, mouth breathing, and infantile type of swallowing. For children under 5 years of age, the use of a plate with a flap or a prophylactic model of the Infant trainer, model T4K, is recommended for tongue piercing. Thus, it is important to take into account the degree of dependence of the correct articulation of sound on a specific anomaly in the structure of the articulatory apparatus. Thus, with mechanical dyslalia, it is often necessary to first correct anomalies in the structure of the child’s dental system for subsequent correct production of sounds. That is why, in order to develop a correct and consistent treatment plan for such combined pathologies, it is very important to ensure interaction and effective cooperation between the speech therapist and the orthodontist, which allows for the timely elimination of anatomical disorders in the structure of the organs involved in articulation and the correction of the maxillofacial development of the child as a whole.

Literature

1. Kalashnikova I. L. Vestibular plates in the work of a speech therapist // Speech therapist. - 2004, No. 3. - P. 121. 2. Kostina Ya. V., Chapala V. M. Speech correction in children // An orthodontist’s view. — 2008.

Classification of consonant sounds.

The classification of consonants is more complex because there are more consonants in the world's languages ​​than vowels. Noisy - sonorous. As part of the consonant sounds of any language, two large classes of consonants are distinguished: noisy, that is, sounds in the formation of which noise plays a major role, and sonorant, that is, sounds in the formation of which the main role is played by the voice arising from the vibration of the vocal cords. The difference between consonants according to the nature of the obstacle and the method of overcoming it. Consonants differ depending on what kind of barriers the speech organs form for the air flow coming from the lungs. If the speech organs are closed, then the air stream opens them. As a result, stop or plosive consonants appear. In those cases when the organs of speech are not closed, but only brought closer together, a gap remains between them. An air stream passes into this gap, characteristic air friction is formed, and the consonant sounds arising from this noise are called fricative (from the word gap), or fricative (from the Latin name fricare - “to rub”, since the air seems to rub against the gap in a loose manner). adjacent speech organs). In various languages ​​there are also consonant sounds that combine the features of plosives with the features of fricative consonants. Such consonants seem to begin with a plosive element and end with a fricative element. They are called affricates. The Russian affricate ts consists of the plosive t and the fricative s, the affricate h - from the plosive t and the fricative sh. Africates are found in English (Georg), German (Deutsch) and many other languages. According to the method of formation of the barrier, trembling consonant sounds are also distinguished, during the formation of which the barrier is formed by periodically bringing the active organ of speech closer to the passive one until a very weak stop appears, which is immediately broken by a stream of air emerging from the lungs. If the first row of differences in the area of ​​consonants is determined by the nature of the obstacles standing in the way of the air flow coming from the lungs, then the second row of differences is associated with the activity of the active organs of speech - the tongue and lips. According to this series of differences, consonants are divided into lingual and labial. When the front part of the tongue is involved in lingual articulations, anterior lingual consonants arise. Middle and back lingual consonants are also possible. The fragmentation continues: among the front-lingual consonants, dental consonants are distinguished, for example, t, and alveolar consonants, for example w). When articulating midlingual consonants, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises and moves closer to the hard palate (for example, the German so-called Ich-Laut in words like ich, Recht). When articulating posterior lingual sounds, the back of the tongue is brought closer together by the soft palate. The back-lingual ones include the Russians k, g, x. In addition to lingual, the same group of consonants also includes labial consonants, which in turn are divided into labiolabial (bilabial, for example, Russian p) or labiodental, for example, v). The difference between labiolabial and labiodental is easy to detect experimentally: to do this, you just need to pronounce the Russian sounds p and v several times in turn. The third row of differences in the system of consonant sounds is created by the so-called palatalization (from the Latin palatum - hard palate). Palatalization, or softness, is the result of raising the middle and anterior part of the tongue towards the hard palate. Any consonant, except for the middle ones, can be palatalized or softened. The presence of palatalized consonants is a striking feature of Russian phonetics.

Voice formation

In every language on our planet there is a specific number of sounds that create the acoustic image of the language. The sound finds meaning only in the scheme of sentences and helps to distinguish one letters from others. This sound is called a phoneme of the language. All sounds of a language differ in articulatory characteristics, that is, their difference comes from the formation of sounds in the human speech apparatus. And by acoustic characteristics - by differences in sound.

The voice can be considered the result of the hard work of the muscles of various components of the peripheral speech apparatus. Three of its departments contribute to the formation of sound:

• respiratory, otherwise energetic - includes the lungs, bronchi, trachea and throat;
• voice-forming department, otherwise generator - the larynx along with sound cords and muscles;
• sound-producing, otherwise resonator - the cavity of the oropharynx and nose.

The work of these departments of the speech apparatus in complete symbiosis can only occur through the central control of speech and voice-forming processes. This suggests that the respiratory process, articulatory mechanism and sound formation are completely controlled by the human nervous system. Its impact also extends to peripheral processes:

• the functioning of the respiratory organs regulates the power of the voice;
• the functioning of the oral cavity is responsible for the formation of vowels and consonants and for the difference in the articulatory process during their formation;
• The nose section provides adjustment of the overtones of the sound.

The central speech apparatus occupies a key place in the formation of the voice. The human jaw and lips, palate and supraglottic lobe, pharynx and lungs are all involved in the process. The air flow leaving the body, going further through the larynx and passing through the mouth and nose is the source of sound. On its way, the air passes through the vocal cords. If they are relaxed, then the sound is not formed and passes freely. If they are close and tense, the air creates vibration as it passes. The result of this process is sound. And then, with the work of the movable organs of the oral cavity, the direct formation of letters and words occurs.

§ 28. Anatomy of the speech apparatus and physiology of the speech organs

The term speech apparatus (i.e., a set of speech organs, which include: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi - lungs, diaphragm) should be understood conditionally.

Since language is a social phenomenon and not a biological one, there are no “speech organs” by nature. All of these organs have direct biological functions such as the organs of smell, taste, breathing, eating and processing food. This is created by nature. The use of these organs for the production of speech sounds is entirely the merit of humanity, which gave them an additional “cultural load”.

F. Engels wrote: “...The emerging people came to the point where they had a need to say something

each other. The need created its own organ: the undeveloped larynx of the monkey was slowly but steadily transformed through modulation into an increasingly developed modulation, and the organs of the mouth gradually learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another.”1

1Engels F. Dialectics of nature // Marx K., Engels F. Works. 2nd ed. T. 20. P. 489.

For the formation of speech sounds, the same conditions are needed as for the formation of sounds in general: a driving force, a body whose vibrations will produce tones and noises, and a resonator to form the timbre of sounds.

The source of the formation of most speech sounds, i.e., the driving force, is a stream of air pushed from the lungs through the bronchi, trachea through the larynx and then through the pharynx and oral cavity (or nose) to the outside. Thus, the human speech apparatus is similar to wind instruments, consisting of bellows (in humans, the lungs), a “tongue” or other body capable of rhythmic vibrations that produces tone (in humans, the vocal cords in the larynx), and an extension pipe or resonator ( in humans - the cavity of the pharynx, mouth and nose). However, the human speech apparatus is much richer in its capabilities than any instrument, and, perhaps, all instruments combined, as can be judged by a person’s onomatopoeic abilities.

The entire speech apparatus linguistically, that is, from the point of view of the formation of speech sounds, can be divided into three parts: 1) everything below the larynx, 2) the larynx and 3) everything above the larynx.

The lower floor of the speech apparatus, consisting of two lungs, two bronchi and a trachea, acts as a bellows and forces a stream of exhaled air through the tension of the muscles of the diaphragm (or the abdominal barrier), necessary for the formation of sounds as a driving force; It is impossible to form speech sounds in the lower level of the speech apparatus.

The middle floor - the larynx - consists of two large cartilages: the cricoid (in the form of a ring, the signet of which faces backward) and the thyroid cartilage placed on it (in the form of two shields connected anteriorly and protruding at an angle forward).1 These two cartilages form the skeleton of the larynx, inside of which, obliquely from the top of the front part to the bottom of the back part, muscular films are stretched in the form of a curtain, converging in two halves to the middle, and the upper edges of this curtain are attached to the inner walls of the thyroid cartilage, and the lower ones to the small pyramidal, or arytenoid, cartilages, which look like triangles and can also move apart and move towards the center; below, the pyramidal cartilages are attached to the inner wall of the “signet” of the cricoid cartilage (see Fig. 3).

1 In common parlance, the protrusion of the thyroid cartilage is called the “Adam’s apple” or “Adam’s apple.”

Rice. 3.

The central edges of the curtain of muscular film are called vocal cords. The vocal cords are very muscular and elastic and can be shortened and stretched, moved apart to different widths, and also be relaxed and tense. The space between the vocal cords is called the interligamentous cleft; the space formed between the pyramidal cartilages diverging to the sides is called the intercartilaginous cleft. Both of these slits together form the glottis, the upper, larger part of which is located between the ligaments, and the lower, smaller part, between the pyramidal cartilages. The glottis can be open in full length or partially: either only between the ligaments, or only between the pyramidal cartilages.

Rice. 4.

The stream of air emerging from the trachea must pass through the cricoid cartilage and glottis; in this case, the following positions in the larynx are possible (see Fig. 4):

1. Both slits are wide open; This is how free breathing occurs without speech: when inhaling, the gap is opened wider, when exhaling, it is slightly narrower (position 1

– inhale, position
2 –
exhale)1.

1 This position in the larynx occurs when pronouncing voiceless consonants and voiceless vowels (voiceless vowels are rare, for example, the last vowels in the words stomp, elbow).

2. Both slits are slightly apart, and a stream of air, passing into a narrow gap, rubs against relaxed ligaments and pyramidal cartilages, which creates a guttural rustling sound, aspiration (position 3

)1.

1 Outside of speech, this phenomenon can be observed when a person is out of breath and breathing heavily.

3. Both slits are closed; To enter the resonator, a stream of air needs to break through this obstacle, as a result of which a click occurs in the larynx, or, in other words, a laryngeal explosion (“knakla2ut”1) - a sound that is pronounced in German before the vowels that begin the word (position 4).

1 Knaklaut –

from the German
Knacklaut -
“clicking sound”.

4. The interligamentous space is closed, and the intercartilaginous space is open; this is how a whisper arises (position 5

).

5. The intercartilaginous gap is closed, and the interligamentous one is slightly open in the upper part, the tense top of the ligaments, oscillating from the movement of the air stream, produces very high sounds - this is falsetto (position 6

).

6. The intercartilaginous gap is closed, and the interligamentous gap is slightly open, and (in contrast to the position 3)

the ligaments are tense, and the air passing into the interligamentous gap does not rustle, but vibrates the vocal cords (the vocal cords vibrate), which causes the formation of a voice (position
7
)1.

1 Therefore, any inflammation or paresis (paralysis) of the ligaments deprives them of the ability to vibrate, and then the person’s voice disappears.

For speech sounds you can use 1: position 3

(glottal aspiration without a voice, in German
Haus,
in English
house -
“house”, and with a voice, in Ukrainian
head,
in Czech
hrad -
“castle”);
position 4
(a glottal explosion without a voice, in German
Knacklaut:
[ [email protected] ]2 – Apfel) and position
7
(a voice that can join any noise formed in the mouth, voicing it), this is how voiced consonants are formed [b] , [v], [d], [z], [g], [d], and also sound without noise, ringing and enhancing resonator tones (which happens with normal vowel pronunciation).
Whisper and falsetto (positions 5
and
6
) can be used in speech as expressive means (especially whisper), but for the language they are the same sounds, and these positions cannot distinguish between sounds - something that is important for language.

1 In this and the next paragraphs, examples are given in the simplest transcription; later (in tables) a more precise transcription system is introduced both on a Russian graphic basis and on a Latin one.

2The sign [?] in phonetic transcription indicates “knaklaut”.

The source of the formation of the entire wealth of speech sounds is the upper floor of the speech apparatus - the supernatant pipe2, the resonator, where overtones and resonator tones are formed, as well as noise from air friction against adjacent organs or from the explosion of closed organs.

The supernasal tube begins with the pharyngeal cavity (pharynx1), where the cartilage of the epiglottis is located, and is further divided into two exit tubes - two cavities: oral and nasal; These two cavities are separated by the palate, the front part of which is hard, this is the hard palate (bone, palatum [palatum]2); the back part of the palate is soft, this is the soft palate (boneless, velum palati [ve2lum pal2ti]3), otherwise it is the palatine curtain, ending with a small tongue (uvula [uvula]4).

1Farinx –

from the Greek
pharynx -
“throat”.

2Palatum –

from the Latin
palatum -
“sky”.

3Velum palata –

from the Latin
velum palati -
“sail of the sky”.

4Uvula –

from the Latin
uvula -
“tongue”.

If the soft palate is raised and the small tongue is pressed against the back wall of the pharynx, then air cannot pass into the nose and must go through the mouth (then the sounds of oral resonance, or oral sounds, are obtained); if the soft palate is lowered and the small uvula is advanced, air can pass through the nose and exit through the nostrils (then the sounds of nasal resonance, or nasal sounds, are produced).

Speech (or phonation)1 breathing differs from ordinary, non-speech breathing in that when we breathe, not speak, exhalation is equal to inhalation, they follow rhythmically one after another, and we exhale all the air from the lungs in one breath; when we speak, we inhale during pauses, and then exhale gradually, in separate bursts (see below).

1Phonation –

from the French
phonation -
“sound”, from the Greek
phone -
“sound”.

The nasal cavity is a resonator that does not change in volume and shape, giving the sound, when it is turned on, a nasal (nasal) timbre, for example, with the sounds [m], [n] or with French and Polish nasal vowels.

The oral cavity, on the contrary, can change its shape and volume in every possible way due to the presence of movable organs: lips, tongue, small uvula, soft palate and, in some cases, the epiglottis.

Of the lips, the lower one has greater mobility, which can close with the upper lip (as with the sounds [p] [b] [m]) or form a labial constriction with it (as in the formation of English [w] or when extinguishing a candle), the lips can also tremble (mainly the lower lip; as when pronouncing the word mnpy!);

both lips can be pulled out into a tube (as with [y]) or rounded into a ring (as with [o]); finally, the lower lip can form a gap, approaching the upper front teeth (as with [f], (v)).

The tongues are the most mobile of the organs included in the human speech apparatus. It consists of a root (the base by which the tongue is attached to the hyoid bone) and a dorsum, divided into posterior, middle and anterior parts; You can especially highlight the tip of the tongue.

Different parts of the tongue have different degrees of mobility: the tip has the greatest mobility, which can rest on the lower teeth, forming an interdental gap with the upper teeth (as with the English sounds depicted in the letter th),

can be pressed against the back wall of the upper front teeth (as with Russian dental x [t], [d], [n], [l], [ts]), to the edge of the upper gum (as with German gingival1 [t], [d ], [n], [I], [ts]), to the alveoli2 – tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth (as with English alveolar [t], [d], [n], [1]);
can bend upward towards the hard palate (as in the special cerebral 3 Indian and some other eastern languages ​​[t], [d], [n], [1]); can form constrictions in the same places (as with different s
and
z
), can tremble near the hard palate (as with Russian
r )
or be lowered down (as usually happens when pronouncing vowels).

1Gingival –

from the Latin
gingiva -
“gums”.

2Alveolus –

from the Latin
alveolus -
“groove”, “notch”.

3Cerebral –

from the Latin
cerebrum -
“brain”.

The front part of the back of the tongue can rise without the participation of the tip to the hard palate, forming a narrowing with it (with a flat surface, as with Russian coronal1 [ш], [ж], or with a curved hump surface, as with the corresponding dorsal2 French and English sounds).

1Coronal –

from the Latin
corona -
“crown”, military. "edge".

2Dorsal –

from the Latin
dorsum -
“back”.

The middle part of the tongue is most limited in its movements; without movement of the front or back part, it can only rise to the hard palate, forming a narrowing with it (as with th

[j]) or closing with it (as with Northern Great Russian sounds in place of [k] and [g] soft in the words
hands, feet,
sounding [ruhi, noØi], see below, § 30).

The back of the tongue can close with the hard and soft palate, rising vertically or moving anteriorly or posteriorly (as with different

and
g
), or form narrowings with the same movements (as with different types of
x ).
In addition, rising in its different parts to one or another level and without forming a closure or narrowing with the palate, the tongue can block the oral cavity, thereby dividing the mouth into two resonating cavities with different volumes and different shapes, which creates different resonance conditions, and this is especially important when pronouncing vowels (see § 31), which is also facilitated by the raising and lowering of the lower movable jaw, which changes the opening of the mouth with these movements.

A small tongue can tremble intermittently, closing with the back of the tongue (as in one of the varieties of French [r] - this is a burr, or uvular, r

).

The epiglottis, otherwise epiglottis (pear-shaped or, more precisely, leaf-shaped cartilage, located in the pharynx under the root of the tongue above the larynx, hence the name epiglottis), serves physiologically to cover the larynx during the passage of food into the esophagus, but can also be used as an organ of speech . Not having its own muscles, the epiglottis is connected to the rich muscles of the hyoid bone, due to which it can not only cover the larynx, but also form a narrowing with the posterior wall of the pharynx (this happens with special, “squeezed” by ear, epiglottis, or epiglottal, consonants of Arabic language).

So: 1) the diaphragm, lungs, bronchi and trachea are the source of the air stream, which is used as a driving force in the formation of speech sounds; 2) the larynx is the source of voice (needed differently for voiced consonants and vowels) and special guttural noises (glottal aspiration and glottal plosive) and 3) the supernasal tube - the mouth and nose - is the source of overtones and resonator tones; In addition, various noises arise in the oral cavity when the organs close and narrow.