The structure of the speech apparatus

Definition and purpose

In science, the speech apparatus is usually understood as a set of human organs intended for the formation of speech. The central section, represented by the brain and individual formations of the central nervous system, performs a regulatory function. Main destination:

To form oral speech, the frontal gyrus of Broca's area is necessary, which forms the motor area.
People perceive the speech of their interlocutor thanks to the speech-auditory area, which includes the temporal gyrus of Wernicke's center.
The parietal lobe is responsible for understanding.
The assimilation of words during the perception of written speech (when reading or writing) occurs thanks to the visual zone located in the occipital lobe.

In addition, the diagram of the human speech apparatus includes the peripheral or executive department, which consists of nerves, bones and muscles.

Causes of peripheral disorders

These are mainly anatomical disorders of the speech organs. 1) Congenital clefts of the uvula (“bicornuated” uvula) or the uvula with a soft palate, or the entire palate. In the most severe cases, the cleft extends to the upper jaw and upper lip, dividing them into two parts. As a result of cleft palate, the air exhaled during speech passes into the nose, which gives the voice an unpleasant nasal timbre (nasality). 2) A cleft of the upper lip, causing the lips to not close tightly (p, b are pronounced like f, v). 3) Malocclusions: open bite (anterior or lateral), sharply protruding upper or lower jaw. 4) Deformations of the teeth, jaws, and palate, often caused by rickets, make it difficult to pronounce certain sounds. 5) Short frenulum of the tongue, which interferes with pronunciation. 6) Hearing impairment (deafness, hearing loss). With early deafness, speech does not develop at all in a child; with hearing loss, it is difficult. 7) Violation of the vocal apparatus (larynx), as a result of which the voice either completely disappears (only whispered speech is possible) or becomes hoarse.
Some anatomical causes are the result of improper child care (poor hygiene of the mouth, ear, and nose). For example, for a long time, sometimes up to 2-3 or more years, children suck hard horns or fingers, which deforms the teeth, jaws and palate. A horn or finger presses in the palate or stretches the jaws, disrupting the correct position of the teeth.

If there are anatomical disorders and anomalies, contact a specialist doctor. However, medical care alone is not enough; the child must be taught how to properly use the improved organ of speech. This is the job of the teacher.

But even if there are some anatomical defects in the peripheral organs of speech, it is still possible, although with great difficulty, to teach a child correct pronunciation, since in humans the biological is overcome by social (training, upbringing) based on the leading role of the central nervous system. Higher nervous activity, due to the extraordinary plasticity of the brain, is capable of adapting defective organs to speech. This is why often children with irregular jaws or teeth still speak normally.

In addition to pathogenic factors that directly cause painful phenomena, called producing causes, there are also factors that contribute to the emergence or development of painful phenomena in speech, predisposing to them. These are often called soil diseases. “We must,” writes I.P. Pavlov, “to bear in mind both different reasons and different soils, which, of course, should entail both different degrees and different courses, even of the same basic painful disorder.” The soil does not have a decisive influence on the occurrence and course of speech disorders. Violation occurs without it, under the influence of producing causes alone. But it facilitates the implementation of the latter and enhances their effectiveness. The cause may be overwork, insufficient nutrition, prolonged lack of sleep, or weakening of the body by previous diseases. Some of the diseases listed on page 33 as causes of disturbances may also be considered soil causes in other cases. Often, the causes of speech disorders begin to act long before their consequences are discovered, for example, in cases of supposedly “causeless” stuttering.

Speech deficiencies observed in normal kindergarten children can be summarized as follows. 1. The most common age-related features of breathing, voice, pronunciation (from babbling speech in the younger group to individual sounds in the older group), tempo and rhythm of speech. 2. Pathological defects (tongue-tied, nasal, stuttering, residual effects of alalia or aphasia) are much less common. From the above it is clear that the causes of speech disorders are not isolated, unchangeable and insurmountable. There is much that families and educators can do to prevent or overcome these disorders.

Congenital preconditions for speech defects are extremely rare. Exaggerating the role of heredity in the formation of speech leads to a harmful attitude: if tongue-tiedness or stuttering is hereditary, then it is useless to fight it. Only features of the anatomical structure of the speech organs (special structure of some parts of the brain, protruded jaw, sparse teeth, etc.) and increased or decreased excitability of the nervous system as a whole can sometimes be transmitted hereditarily. Both can only alleviate the manifestations of speech defects, but do not cause them and, in any case, do not condemn children to lifelong speech impairment. The main problem of a child is not that he is born with some defects in the speech apparatus, but that he sometimes lives in conditions unsuitable for normal speech development .

Khvattsev M. E.

Features of the executive department

It includes three major structural divisions. The first is the respiratory section. Its activity, which is a sequence of inputs, exhalations and pauses between them, is regulated by the central nervous system. The main working “tool” is the diaphragm, which expands and contracts, due to which the lungs change volume and produce inhalations and exhalations. In this case, an air stream is formed, which is important for the formation of the voice; the clarity of the pronunciation of speech sounds depends on its intensity. In addition, the respiratory department includes:

rib cage;
lungs;
intercostal muscles.

The functions of the air stream are voice-forming and articulatory. The sound is formed when you exhale, and the inhalation when speaking becomes deeper and shorter. The number of respiratory movements performed during speech is much greater than directly during physiological breathing. The volume of air inhaled and exhaled during conversations is three times greater than during normal inhalations and exhalations.

Voice education

In the structure and functioning of the speech apparatus, the vocal section plays the most important role; it is responsible for the formation of the voice and its characteristics - timbre, strength, pitch. It includes the larynx and vocal cords, which, vibrating under the influence of an air stream, produce sounds.

The larynx is a tube consisting of soft tissues and cartilage; in its upper part it passes into the pharynx, in the lower part into the trachea. In the place where the larynx connects to the pharynx, the epiglottis is located, which serves as a kind of valve when swallowing: by descending, it prevents pieces of food and saliva from entering it. Organ Features:

The larynx in men is larger, the vocal cords are longer (up to 2-2.4 cm). In women, the length of the ligaments is 1.8-2 cm.
The size of the organ in children before puberty is the same, regardless of gender.
The larynx grows unevenly throughout a person's life. There are periods of active growth in size: 5-7 years, 12-13 (girls) and 13-15 (boys). The latter develop an Adam's apple.
Changes shape: in children it is in the form of a funnel, in adults it is cylindrical.

The power of the air environment determines the strength of the sound, and the pitch and timbre of the voice depend on the size of the ligaments, their elasticity and degree of tension.

In addition, resonators, which include the pharynx, oral and nasal cavities, also influence the specificity. They change their volume, that is, they resonate, due to which the sounds acquire strength and overtone coloring.

Making sounds

The articulatory department, which includes the tongue and lips, jaws, alveoli, and palate (hard and soft), is responsible for this important process. In science there is a classification of them into active (moving) and passive (stationary). The first group includes the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw; all others belong to the passive category. The profile of the articulatory apparatus will help you visualize what they look like.

The most important organ of the speech apparatus is the tongue, which takes part in the formation of almost all speech sounds with the exception of labial ones. During articulation, the organs move closer to each other, and closures or slits are formed, which causes the formation of a voice.

The extension tube contains resonators, which are responsible for the clarity and volume of speech. This tube has a specific structure that allows it to change shape and volume. It has two main functions - a noise vibrator and a resonator. The first can be performed by the vocal cords, the gaps between the lips, as well as between the tongue and the hard palate, the tongue and lips, the tongue and alveoli, lips and teeth. Features of the formation of various sounds:

The noise vibrator is involved in the formation of voiceless consonants.
The tone vibrator allows you to pronounce sonorant and voiced phonemes.
The nasal cavity takes part in the formation of m, n and their soft variants.

These are the basic structural components of speech and language.

Speech apparatus defects

The speech apparatus is a set of organs that are involved in sound pronunciation and speech formation. It consists of 2 sections: central and peripheral. The central part includes the brain, and the peripheral part includes muscles, bones, cartilage, and ligaments. Therefore, when we talk about disorders in the peripheral region, we are talking about the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw. Disruption of the functioning of one or several organs of the speech apparatus at the same time leads to the appearance of speech disorders.

Defects of the speech apparatus, from a diagnostic point of view, can be divided into 2 groups. The first group will include disorders that are diagnosed at an early age; more often, already in the first month of a child’s life, examination reveals disorders that can only be corrected surgically.

The second group includes disorders that cannot be diagnosed at an early age. Their presence becomes known during the development of speech, most often at 2-2.5 years. In this case, you should seek help from a pediatric speech therapist. At the first consultation, the speech therapist will diagnose the disorders and, if necessary, refer you to related specialists.

If the first symptoms of speech disorders occur, you should immediately contact a speech therapist for diagnosis and selection of a correct and effective correction program.

Parents should contact a specialist if they notice:

Stuttering or pronunciation of words too slow/fast, pauses between words;
Voice disturbances, nasality, changes in voice timbre;
Distortion or “swallowing” of sounds, inaudible speech, and others.

Our center’s specialists successfully work with speech apparatus defects; the following methods are most often used to correct speech disorders:

Speech therapy massage;
Special speech therapy exercises;
DENAS therapy;
Classes using Forbrain (the device can also be purchased for home use);
Exercises for speech breathing and others.

The most common speech apparatus defects and methods of their correction:

Dysphonia (aphonia) is popularly called “voice disorder” or “vocal disorder”. Signs: lack of phonation or changes in the strength and timbre of the voice, nasality or hoarseness. Requires urgent correction, since with age the symptoms intensify and are less amenable to correction. In the treatment of dysphonia, articulation and breathing exercises, massage of the collar area, and exercises with the DENAS apparatus are most often used.

Stuttering is a disturbance in the tempo, rhythm and fluency of speech caused by convulsions of the speech apparatus. In children, it most often occurs during the development of phrasal speech. In the absence of timely correction, stuttering can accompany a person into adulthood. This disorder is difficult to correct due to its obsessive nature. Treatment of stuttering at the Ember Center is aimed at eliminating the pathological factors that led to the onset of stuttering, as well as neutralizing its consequences, fear of speech - logophobia. It is thanks to an integrated approach that it is possible to get rid of stuttering not temporarily, but forever.

A short frenulum is a defect of the oral cavity, which, as a rule, is congenital. With this disorder, the child cannot pronounce some sounds. Often, with a short frenulum, it is recommended to solve the problem surgically, especially at an early age, when the work of a speech therapist is not yet possible. But this can often be avoided with timely contact with a speech therapist. With the help of special exercises, you can stretch the frenulum, thereby solving this problem.

A dome-shaped palate is a defect of the speech apparatus caused by the incorrect structure of the oral cavity. The speech therapist teaches how to pronounce sounds that are inaccessible to the client, which will not differ from traditional ones by ear.

Rhinolalia (cleft palate) is characterized by a defective structure and functioning of the speech apparatus. A cleft palate interferes with normal voice production. A person with such a defect grossly distorts sounds, pronounces words nasally, and his voice timbre changes. In the treatment of such disorders, a surgical method is often used, after which a course of sessions with a speech therapist is required.

Dysarthria is a violation of the muscle tone of the articulatory apparatus, which contributes to the development of speech production disorders. With dysarthria, speech motor skills, breathing, voice and pronunciation of sounds are impaired. In this case, correctional classes with a speech therapist are aimed at eliminating the cause of the violations. The specialist uses articulation gymnastics, speech therapy massage, and DENAS therapy.

Defects of the speech apparatus are often found in people, but it is in childhood that they can be most effectively treated. With age, correction of these violations becomes more difficult and time-consuming.

Correction of speech apparatus defects at the Ember center is carried out according to an individually developed program. For complex disorders, we recommend a joint consultation with several specialists: a clinical psychologist, a speech pathologist, a special education teacher, and a neuropsychologist. An integrated approach helps to accurately determine the diagnosis and its causes, develop a correction route, without missing important details.

If your child has a speech defect that interferes with normal speech, sign up for a consultation by calling +7 (812) 642-47-02 or leave a request on the website.

Stages of speech formation

The respiratory section of the vocal apparatus is responsible for supplying air, the vocal apparatus forms the voice, and the function of the articulatory apparatus is to create the resonance necessary for distinct sound and volume. Pronouncing a word consists of several stages. First, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex, that is, a specific articulatory program is formed. Subsequent stages:

Implementation of the prepared program in the executive department of the vocal apparatus. The respiratory organs and resonator system take part. They help pronounce certain phonemes.
To avoid errors during pronunciation, kinesthetic control is necessary, which allows you to make corrections before the phoneme is pronounced.
At the moment the sound is heard, auditory control is carried out, allowing a person to understand the mistake made and correct it.

The pathways form the conduction section. Nerve pathways are divided into two types: centrifugal (transmit information from the central nervous system to the muscles, ligaments and tendons) and centripetal (information moves in the opposite direction - from the muscles, tendons and ligaments to the central nervous system). In the second case, the paths are also called sensitive.

Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech

Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, i.e. structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows us to imagine the complex mechanism of speech. The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain.

The structure of the speech apparatus.

The speech apparatus consists of two closely interconnected parts: the central (regulating) speech apparatus and the peripheral (performing) speech apparatus.

1. The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of: - cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere) - subcortical nodes - pathways - nuclei of the brainstem (primarily the medulla oblongata) - nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments??

Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops at the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of primary importance in the formation of speech. These are the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes, predominantly of the left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handers, the right).

— The frontal gyri (inferior) are the motor area and are involved in the formation of one’s own oral speech (Broca’s area).

— The temporal gyri (superior) are the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perceiving someone else’s speech is carried out.

The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important for understanding speech .

— The occipital lobe is a visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing).

— The subcortical nuclei control the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.

— The pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the speech apparatus - centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways . The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex in Broca's center.

From the periphery to the center, i.e. from the area of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, there are centripetal pathways . The centripetal pathway begins in the proprioceptors and baroreceptors.

Proprioceptors are found inside muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs. Proprioceptors are excited by muscle contractions. Thanks to proprioceptors, all our muscle activity is controlled.

Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx. When we speak, proprio- and baroreceptors are irritated, which follows a centripetal path to the cerebral cortex.

The centripetal path plays the role of a general regulator of all activities of the speech organs.

The cranial nerves originate in the nuclei of the brainstem All organs of the peripheral speech apparatus are innervated (innervation is the provision of any organ or tissue with nerve fibers, cells) by cranial nerves . The main ones are: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and sublingual.

— The trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw;

- Facial nerve - facial muscles, including muscles that move the lips, puff out and retract the cheeks;

- Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and cardiac organs.

— The accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck, and the hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor nerves and gives it the possibility of a variety of movements.

Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one. Nerve impulses move the speech organs.

But this path from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one constitutes only one part of the speech mechanism. Another part of it is feedback - from the periphery to the center.

2. The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1. Respiratory 2. Vocal 3. Articulatory (sound-producing)

The respiratory section includes the chest with lungs, bronchi and trachea .

Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to another, main one - gas exchange). Breathing during speech is significantly different from usual when a person is silent. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation (while outside of speech, the duration of inhalation is approximately the same). In addition, at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (without speech) breathing.

It is clear that for a longer exhalation a larger supply of air is needed. Therefore, at the moment of speaking, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases significantly (about 3 times). The inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Another feature of speech breathing is that exhalation at the moment of speech is carried out with the active participation of the exhaled muscles (the abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles). This ensures its greatest duration and depth, and in addition, increases the pressure of the air stream, without which sonorous speech is impossible.

The vocal section consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is a wide, short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissue. It is located in the front of the neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people.

From above the larynx passes into the pharynx . From below it passes into the trachea . At the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis . It consists of cartilage tissue shaped like a tongue or petal. Its front surface faces the tongue, and its back surface faces the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.

In men, the larynx is larger, and the vocal folds are longer and thicker than in women. The length of the vocal folds in women is on average 18-20 mm, in men it ranges from 20 to 24 mm.

How is voice formation or phonation accomplished?

The mechanism of voice formation is as follows. During phonation, the vocal folds are in a closed state (Figure 2). A stream of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original state, i.e. middle position, so that as a result of the continued pressure of the exhaled air stream, it moves apart again, etc. Closing and opening continues until the pressure of the voice-forming exhalatory stream stops. Thus, during phonation, vibrations of the vocal folds occur. These vibrations occur in the transverse and not the longitudinal direction, i.e. the vocal folds move inward and outward, rather than upward and downward. As a result of vibrations of the vocal folds, the movement of the stream of exhaled air turns over the vocal folds into vibrations of air particles. These vibrations are transmitted to the environment and are perceived by us as vocal sounds. When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back part between them there remains a gap in the shape of a small equilateral triangle, through which the exhaled stream of air passes. The vocal folds do not vibrate, but the friction of the air stream against the edges of the small triangular slit causes noise, which we perceive as a whisper. The voice has strength, height, timbre. The strength of the voice depends mainly on the amplitude (span) of vibrations of the vocal folds, which is determined by the amount of air pressure, i.e. exhalation force. The resonator cavities of the extension pipe (pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity), which are sound amplifiers, have a significant influence on the strength of the voice. The size and shape of the resonator cavities, as well as the structural features of the larynx, affect the individual “color” of the voice, or timbre . It is thanks to timbre that we distinguish people by their voices. The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and this in turn depends on the length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker they are and the less tense they are, the lower the sound of the voice. In addition, the pitch of the voice depends on the pressure of the air stream on the vocal folds and the degree of their tension.

Articulation department . The main organs of articulation are: - tongue - lips - jaws (upper and lower) - hard palate - soft palate - alveoli Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are fixed (Fig. 3).

The main organ of articulation is the tongue.

The tongue is a massive muscular organ. When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is mobile, the back part is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. The movable part of the tongue is divided into: tip, anterior edge (blade), lateral edges and back. The complex plexus of the muscles of the tongue and the variety of their attachment points provide the ability to change the shape, position and degree of position of the tongue within a wide range. This is very important because... the tongue is involved in the formation of vowels and almost all consonant sounds (except labials).

An important role in the formation of speech sounds also belongs to the lower jaw, lips, teeth, hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Articulation consists in the fact that the listed organs form slits, or closures, that occur when the tongue approaches or touches the palate, alveoli, teeth, as well as when the lips are compressed or pressed against the teeth. The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created thanks to resonators. Resonators are located throughout the extension pipe.

The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.

In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals (for example, a monkey), the cavities of the pharynx and mouth are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - the extension tube. It performs the important function of a speech resonator. The extension pipe in humans was formed as a result of evolution.

Due to its structure, the extension pipe can change in shape and volume. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe create the phenomenon of resonance. As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are enhanced, while others are muffled. Thus, a specific speech timbre of sounds arises. For example, when the sound a occurs, the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and stretches. And when pronouncing a sound and vice versa, the oral cavity contracts and the pharynx expands.

The larynx alone does not create a specific speech sound; it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in resonators (pharyngeal, oral and nasal). When producing speech sounds, the extension pipe performs a dual function: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds, which are located in the larynx). The noise vibrator is the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and teeth, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the closures between these organs broken by a stream of air.

Using a noise vibrator, voiceless consonants are formed. When the tone vibrator is turned on simultaneously (vibration of the vocal folds), voiced and sonorant consonants are formed.

The oral cavity and pharynx take part in the pronunciation of all sounds of the Russian language. If a person has correct pronunciation, then the nasal resonator is involved only in pronouncing the sounds m and n and soft variants. When pronouncing other sounds, the velum palatine, formed by the soft palate and a small uvula, closes the entrance to the nasal cavity.

So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second - to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives the sound strength and color and, thus, the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.

In order for words to be pronounced in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called articulation programs . The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer - in the respiratory, phonation and resonator systems.

Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result, certain speech sounds arise and oral (or expressive) speech is formed.

UNDERSTANDING ABOUT FEEDBACK COMMUNICATION . We said above that nerve impulses coming from the central speech apparatus set the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus in motion. But there is also feedback.

How is it carried out?

This connection functions in two directions: the kinesthetic pathway and the auditory pathway.

For the correct implementation of a speech act, control is necessary: 1. with the help of hearing; 2. through kinesthetic sensations.

In this case, a particularly important role belongs to kinesthetic sensations going to the cerebral cortex from the speech organs. It is kinesthetic control that allows you to prevent an error and make a correction before the sound is pronounced.

Auditory control operates only at the moment of pronouncing a sound. Thanks to sound monitoring, a person notices an error. To eliminate the error, you need to correct the articulation and control it.

Return impulses go from the speech organs to the center, where they control the position of the speech organs at which the error occurred. An impulse is then sent from the center, which causes precise articulation. And again the opposite impulse arises - about the achieved result. This continues until articulation and auditory control are matched. We can say that feedback functions as if in a ring - impulses go from the center to the periphery and then from the periphery to the center.

This is how feedback is provided and a second signaling system . An important role here belongs to systems of temporary neural connections - dynamic stereotypes that arise due to repeated perception of language elements (phonetic, lexical and grammatical) and pronunciation. The feedback system ensures automatic regulation of the functioning of the speech organs.

Implementation of speech function

Two centers are responsible for the sound of speech: sensory and motor speech. The first helps to perceive phonemes and distinguish them from each other, while the second is necessary for reproducing sounds, words and sentences. In psychology, it is customary to distinguish two types of speech:

impressive, that is, understanding someone else’s oral and written speech;
expressive, pronounced out loud with a certain intonation, rhythm, tempo.

It is interesting that a healthy infant in the first year of his life can reproduce up to 75 shortest sounds, that is, at the physiological level he is capable of learning any language in the world. In the future, everything depends on what language is spoken in his family.

To learn to speak competently, every person must understand what subsystems there are in the Russian language. These include:

Phonetics. The science of speech sounds - phonemes, the rules of their articulation from the perspective of physiology.
Semantics. Helps to understand the meaning of each lexical item.
Syntax. Allows you to understand how sentences are formed from individual words.
Vocabulary. Studying the vocabulary richness of the language.

Speech sounds in Russian are divided into consonants (they are noises) and vowels (tones). The former are divided into voiceless and voiced, hard and soft, and the latter into stressed and unstressed. These signs are usually called semantically distinctive. There are 42 phonemes in the Russian language, of which 36 are consonants and 6 are vowels.

"Mechanisms of speech development"

Tsigelnikova O.S.

Master's student, State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Donetsk National University", Institute of Pedagogy

MECHANISMS OF SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

annotation

The article is devoted to the problem of speech development, specifically what mechanisms of speech development exist and what they are. The material discusses methods and techniques that contribute to the development of the mechanisms of speech activity.

Keywords:

speech, speech activity, mechanism of equivalent substitutions, mechanism of speech memory, mechanism of anticipation, stages in the development of speech.

Keywords:

speech, speech activity, the mechanism of equivalent substitutions, the mechanism of speech memory, the mechanism of anticipation, stages in the formation of speech.

A person spends his entire life improving his speech and mastering the richness of the language. Speech arises from the need to speak out, and a person’s statements are generated by certain motives. This aspect of speech activity is called speech motivation.

Speech is the most important social function, the development of which requires verbal communication. The genetic program for language acquisition is realized only in verbal communication. At the same time, communication should be meaningful for the child. Therefore, for speech development, it is not enough for the child to simply hear speech. It is necessary that they say something that is meaningful to him and thereby stimulate him to communicate. This situation is very important to take into account when carrying out corrective work.

Thus, the relevance of this study

— study of the relationship between the mechanisms of speech activity and the acquisition of language knowledge and skills in the educational activities of a schoolchild.

Object of study

speech activity appears.

Subject of study

— mechanisms of speech activity.

Purpose of the study

— determine methods and techniques that contribute to the development of the mechanisms of speech activity.

Research objectives:

analyze the literature available on this topic; reveal the essence of the key concepts of the study: “speech”, “speech activity”, “mechanism”; identify methods and techniques for developing the mechanisms of speech activity used in school practice; summarize the results obtained.

S. Vygotsky put forward a position on the leading role of teaching and upbringing in the mental development of a child. Currently, this position has been confirmed in further research, where it has been established: The more intense and varied the flow of information enters the child’s brain, the faster the functional and anatomical maturation of the central nervous system occurs.

The implementation of speech activity at all phases (levels) of its implementation is ensured by a number of complex psychological mechanisms, the list and characteristics (essence, specificity of action in a real speech situation) of which are presented in the works of famous domestic psychologists V.A. Artemov, V.M. Gordon, N. I. Zhinkina, I. A. Zimney, V. P. Zinchenko and others.

According to the views of N.I. Zhinkin, the mechanisms of speech

- these are the abilities on the basis of which speech activity develops, communicative and speech skills are formed and improved. The most important mechanisms of speech (speech activity) are: the mechanism of understanding speech, the mechanism of equivalent substitutions, the mechanism of speech memory. The named mechanisms of speech activity are closely related, act and develop in organic unity, together. [6]

N.I. Zhinkin also names in his works a number of other mechanisms (in some publications he speaks of “devices”), which can be attributed to different levels of the hierarchy mentioned above, as well as to even more general ideas about language. Thus, language is considered both as a mechanism that opens up the realm of consciousness to a person, and as a mechanism for controlling all human actions and activities. Mechanisms such as the linear mechanism of encoding and decoding, the grammatical mechanism, the mechanism of combining lexical meanings, the mechanism of forming semantic series, the interaction of meaning and meaning, semantic substitutions, word selection, etc. are discussed. It is indicated that the mechanism of retention and anticipation passes through all links of the speech hierarchy . The context mechanism is mentioned, a device for controlling semantic combinations of words and a device that narrows the scope of the dictionary and regulates the selection of words is considered. N.I. Zhinkin also talks about different levels of internal integration, feedback, predicativity, and much more that deserves a more detailed discussion. [2]

The most important mechanism of speech activity is the mechanism of comprehension of speech, which provides a mental analysis of both the content side of speech (this is primarily) and its structural organization and linguistic design. The implementation of the mechanism for comprehending speech is carried out through the analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex - based on the inclusion of all basic mental actions and operations (comparison, juxtaposition, generalization, classification, analysis and synthesis). The motives and goals of verbal communication are realized, and orientation in the conditions of communication takes place. Without comprehension, planning and programming are impossible. Finally, thanks to the mechanism of comprehension, the flow of speech activity and its results are monitored. [13]

The development of human speech is based on improving the mechanism of equivalent substitutions, the essence of which, according to N.I. Zhinkin, is the ability to equate some verbal and visual structures with other verbal and visual structures. The basis of speech activity is the isolation of elements from the whole message (text) or the implementation of the whole message conceived by the speaker or writer. The listener (reader, speaker, writer) must, by comprehending the received utterance, or realizing the speech plan, find equivalent verbal replacements for the images that arise in his inner speech in the process of speech activity. The translation of internal speech into external speech is carried out using linguistic means, the adequacy of the selection of which determines the effectiveness of verbal communication.

Development of the mechanism of equivalent substitutions

facilitates compliance with a number of conditions. Firstly, it is necessary to ensure the enrichment of a person’s vocabulary in the process of targeted work on analyzing and constructing statements; secondly, it is necessary to form a critical attitude towards the selection of words that fully correspond to the general intent of the statement. Finally, when perceiving a statement, one should strive to understand and convey its general meaning based on the mechanism of equivalent substitutions, “in your own words.” [3]

The effective operation of the equivalent substitution mechanism is ensured by the functioning of the speech memory mechanism

. Thus, the work of the long-term memory mechanism ensures the updating of the knowledge and ideas available in memory about that fragment of the reality around us, which is currently the subject of our statement. In addition, long-term memory actualizes in the mind image-representations about language signs and the rules for their use in the process of speech communication. Long-term memory provides a person with the accumulation and retention of vocabulary, and the mechanism for selecting equivalent replacements makes it possible not only to find a word adequate for a given speech situation, but also to provide for the use of synonymous variants.

The development of the mechanism of speech memory is facilitated by a person’s determination to select exactly adequate words to express an idea, regardless of the search conditions and the available sources of information (books, linguistic dictionaries, Internet sources, etc.). Targeted systematic training in creating various syntactic structures in order to automate the process of “issuing” certain sentences is very effective.

The psychological mechanism of “anticipatory analysis and synthesis” (speech prediction) is called the anticipation mechanism

(P.K. Anokhin, N.A. Bernshtein, N.I. Zhinkin, A.A. Leontyev, A.M. Shakhnarovich, etc.). The action of this mechanism was described by A. A. Leontyev [5] as a “heuristic principle” of organizing speech activity, which has a link within which the “choice of strategy” for speech behavior is carried out. In the process of creating an utterance, the speaker (writer), relying on an understanding of the communication situation, the general intent of the utterance, must anticipate the features of the development of the intent, the structure and composition of the text as a whole, each of its components (syntactic structure), the reaction of listeners (readers), the most difficult parts of the utterance and so on.

The formation of an anticipation mechanism is already possible in working with children of preschool and primary school age, when children learn to anticipate the content of the text to be read based on external reference points (drawings, title, etc.) of a book (pages of an ABC book, literary reading textbook, etc.). The development of the anticipation mechanism is associated with strengthening the ability to predict the structure of a separate sentence (replicas in dialogue) and text (the semantic blocks that make them up, the total number of blocks, their location, etc.). Special training is no less effective: in addition, transformation of the text, taking into account the nature of those components that have already been comprehended in the process of reading or

A.N. Leontiev establishes four stages in the development of speech in children:

Stage 1 - preparatory - up to one year;

Stage 2 - pre-preschool stage of initial language acquisition - up to 3 years;

3rd stage – preschool – up to 7 years;

Stage 4 – school – from 7 to 17 years.

The fourth stage is school (from 7 to 17 years). The main feature of speech development in children at this stage is its conscious assimilation. Children master sound analysis and learn grammatical rules for constructing statements. The leading role here belongs to a new type of speech—written speech. At school age, a purposeful restructuring of the child’s speech occurs - from the perception and discrimination of sounds to the conscious use of all linguistic means. [4, p. 74]

Speech is a complex system of conditioned reflexes. It is based on the second signaling system, the conditioned stimuli of which are words in their audio (oral speech) or visual form. The sounds and forms of words, being at first neutral stimuli for an individual, become conditioned speech stimuli in the process of re-combining them with the primary signal stimulus, causing perceptions and sensations of objects and their properties [7, p.86]. As a result, they acquire semantic meaning and become signals of the immediate stimuli with which they were combined. The temporary neural connections formed in this case are further strengthened through constant verbal reinforcement, become strong and acquire a two-way character: the sight of an object immediately evokes a reaction of naming it and, conversely, an audible or visible word immediately evokes the idea of the object designated by this word.

So, the mechanisms of speech

– these are the abilities on the basis of which communicative and speech skills are formed and improved. In other words, this is the conventional name for a system of psychophysiological prerequisites that allow a person to construct meaningful statements and understand someone else’s speech. The mechanisms of speech are based on functional physiological systems that develop in a person in the process of his individual development under the active influence of objective activity and communication with other people and are impossible without certain innate abilities and skills (for example, correct coordination of articulation, syllable formation and breathing).

List of used literature

1. Glukhov V.P. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics: textbook. manual for students of pedagogical universities. - M.: ACT: Astrel, 2005. - 351s

2. Zhinkin N.I. Language - speech - creativity: Research. on semiotics, psycholinguistics, poetics: (Selected works) /. - M.: Labyrinth, 1998. - 364 p.

3. Ippolitova N.A., Knyazeva O.Yu., Savvova M.R. Russian language and cultural speech: textbook. / under rsd. ON THE. Ippolitova. - M., 2007.

4. Ladyzhenskaya, T.A. Living word. - M.: Education, 1986. - 193 p. S74

5. Leontyev A. A. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics: Textbook. for university students studying in the specialty “Psychology” / A.A. Leontyev. - 3rd ed. — M.: Meaning; St. Petersburg : Lan, 2003. – 285s

6. Speech as a conductor of information / N. I. Zhinkin; [Preface R. G. Kotova, A. I. Novikova]. - M.: Nauka, 1982. - 159 p.

7. Selevko, G.K. Competencies and their classification / G. Selevko // Public education. – 2004. – No. 4. – P. 138-143 C86.

Possible problems

The structure of the voice apparatus, as well as the functional features of each of its departments, will help you work out what problems may arise. In speech therapy, it is customary to distinguish several types of disorders:

Incorrect use of speech organs.
Violation of the structure of organs or tissues.
Problems with the parts of the nervous system whose function is to ensure the pronunciation of phonemes.

In addition, children may experience delayed speech development (SDD), the essence of which is the inability to pronounce certain sounds, the inability to express emotions, and lack of control over intonation. Also included in the developmental developmental disorder are underdeveloped vocabulary, the absence of phrasal speech in 2-year-olds, and the absence of coherent speech in 3-year-olds. These defects should be eliminated as soon as possible by contacting speech therapists, otherwise they may cause the child to be unable to learn to write and read normally.

The vocal apparatus is the most important part of the human body; it helps people communicate with each other and find their place in society. For this reason, any problem detected in early childhood must be addressed immediately.

PREFACE

This textbook is addressed to teachers and psychologists whose activities are related to the development of speech in children and adolescents, and primarily to speech pathologists involved in the formation of speech in conditions of general and speech dysontogenesis (disturbed, deviant development). This manual is devoted to one of the most important sections of the new field of scientific knowledge - psycholinguistics, namely the theory of speech activity. Knowledge of the fundamentals of the theory of speech activity, in our deep conviction, is a prerequisite for the professional training of all specialists who, in practice, carry out the solution of one of the main tasks of education and upbringing - the formation of speech as a specifically human type of mental activity in the course of personal and social development of a person. The idea of creating a textbook on psycholinguistics was formed by each of its authors quite a long time ago, at least since the time when the educational course “Fundamentals of the Theory of Speech Activity” (in university practice immediately designated by the memorable abbreviation “ OTRD"). At the end of the 90s of the last century, at the suggestion of V.A. Kovshikov, the authors decided to combine their efforts in this direction, and a few years later the initial version (manuscript) of the textbook was ready - the first textbook on psycholinguistics for speech pathologists students in the domestic educational literature. Unfortunately, the sudden death of Valery Anatolyevich did not allow this work to be completed, since its final stage - the final “joining” of the chapters and sections of the book written by each of the authors, their combination into a common text of the manual - was not completed. And yet, this book was able to see the light of day thanks to the help of the ACT - Astrel Publishing House and, first of all, the leading editor of the Educational Projects department, E.E. Shevtsova, to whom we would like to express special gratitude and gratitude. The publication of this book is a tribute to the memory and deep respect of V. A. Kovshikov, a colleague and senior comrade, one of the prominent domestic specialists in the field of theory and practice of speech therapy. Valery Anatolyevich was a bright and extraordinary personality; He directed all his great creative potential and irrepressible energy to solving pressing problems and needs of practical speech therapy, remaining its devoted Knight and servant until his very last days. V.A. Kovshikov’s personal contribution to the theory and methodology of domestic speech therapy is recognized by all leading specialists in this field of correctional pedagogy. The authors of this manual are “pupils” and representatives of different “schools” of domestic speech therapy – St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and Moscow. These two leading “scientific and methodological centers” of Russian speech therapy for several decades of their existence were in a certain “opposition” to each other, which was reflected in the differences in conceptual approaches to many problems in the theory and practice of speech therapy. It was natural to expect a lack of “complete mutual understanding” in the views on the psycholinguistic interpretation of speech activity among the authors of this manual, which actually happened at the initial stage of joint work. It should be noted that some “differences in views” among the authors of this book were successfully overcome, and quite lengthy “scientific discussions” led to a “consensus” that satisfied both authors. The main circumstance that determined this was the very interested attitude of the authors to psycholinguistics and unity in their view of its role in the professional development of a teacher-defectologist. Psycholinguistics is a science that emerged relatively recently, in the early 50s. last century. Having emerged “at the junction” of two “oldest” branches of scientific knowledge – psychology and linguistics (linguistics), psycholinguistics, in a relatively short period of its existence, has become one of the main “speech science” and linguistic sciences. The emergence of this new field of science was objectively determined by the needs of social development of human society, in particular the need for scientific knowledge of the nature of human mental intellectual activity (A.A. Leontyev, 2003, etc.). Speech as a higher mental function, which is one of the components of intellectual activity, and language as the main means of speech activity and the implementation of thinking processes, have long been the subject of special attention of psychologists and linguists. Thanks to a number of theoretical and experimental studies in the “bowels” of these sciences, quite a large amount of epistemological and factual material has been accumulated and generalized, characterizing the specific - psychological and linguistic - patterns of language acquisition and the formation of human speech ability during ontogenesis, the peculiarities of the implementation of speech communication in the human society. Despite the significant progress achieved in psychology and linguistics in the study of speech and the process of using language in verbal communication, by the middle of the 20th century it became obvious to specialists dealing with these problems that psychologists and linguists need to combine their efforts in solving these problems. There is an urgent need to create a “universal” scientific theory that objectively reflects the dialectical unity of language and speech in the processes of speech communication, explaining the diversity of manifestations of speech activity and its connection with the processes of mental, analytical and synthetic human activity. An important issue was also the development of a new methodology for scientific research, combining the most modern and promising methods of theoretical and experimental research into the phenomena of language and speech. For the first time, such a methodology for scientific knowledge of speech activity and studying the nature of language signs was developed by the outstanding Russian scientist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, one of the founders of psycholinguistics (42, 45, etc.). Scientific discoveries of L.S. Vygotsky, his promising and profound scientific concepts about the nature of the phenomena of language and speech, the dialectical unity of the processes of thinking and speech, the patterns of speech formation and language acquisition during ontogenesis served as a scientific and theoretical basis for the emergence of psycholinguistics as an independent field of scientific knowledge. Without any exaggeration we can say that the works of L.S. Vygotsky and other representatives of Russian psychological and linguistic schools (P.P. Blonsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, A.R. Luria, A.N. Leontiev, L.V. Shcherba, V.V. Vinogradov, etc.) came the most important scientific prerequisite for the emergence of psycholinguistics. At the same time, it cannot be denied that the leading role in the emergence of psycholinguistics as an independent science belonged to American scientists - psychologists and linguists, primarily C. Osgood, J. Carroll and T. Sibeok. Despite the fact that the recognition of psycholinguistics as a serious science in the domestic scientific community took place only in the early 60s. XX century, the domestic psycholinguistic school developed quite intensively and soon moved to a leading position. The achievements of Russian psycholinguistics have received recognition throughout the world. This happened largely due to the fact that domestic psycholinguistics drew its development from the enormous scientific potential of the domestic psychological and linguistic school, which delegated its best representatives to this science (A.R. Luria, P.Ya. Galperin, V.A. Artemov , N.I. Zhinkin, E.F. Tarasov, P.M. Frumkina, A.K. Markova, etc.). The scientific material accumulated by psycholinguistics over the half-century period of its existence on the patterns of the formation and implementation of speech activity, the processes of speech communication, the use of language signs for the implementation of speech and mental activity, without a doubt, should be the property of every specialist involved in the formation of speech or the restoration of speech ability (in case of acquired speech development disorders). This knowledge is of particular importance for a correctional teacher (primarily a speech therapist), whose main goal of professional activity is the formation of speech in conditions of general and speech dysontogenesis. Knowledge of the psycholinguistic patterns of speech activity and its formation during ontogenesis constitutes, in our opinion, the basis of the “basic” theoretical training of a speech therapist. The need for the active introduction of psycholinguistic knowledge into the theory and methodology of speech therapy work, as well as the importance of mastering this knowledge by speech pathology students, has been repeatedly pointed out in their works by leading theorists and methodologists of domestic speech therapy - T.B. Filicheva, G.V. Chirkina, L.S. Volkova, B.M. Grinshpun, R.I. Lalaeva, O.S. Orlova, S.N. Shakhovskaya and others. Under the guidance of R.I. Lalaeva and with the participation of the above-mentioned specialists, a textbook on psycholinguistics was prepared - the first textbook of this kind for special education teachers. A number of interesting methodological materials related to the introduction of psycholinguistic knowledge into the practice of speech therapy work are contained in the manual prepared under the guidance of L.B. Khalilova at the defectology faculty of Moscow State University (179). Domestic psycholinguistics, as one of its creators, A.A. Leontyev, points out, for almost a quarter of a century after its inception, it developed primarily in the direction of developing a theory of speech activity. I would like to especially emphasize that the methodological arsenal of psycholinguistics (in comparison with other “speech” sciences) allows us to most fully and exhaustively study the patterns and specific features of the formation and functioning of speech activity. It should be noted that the most important task of speech correction and speech therapy work is the students’ full mastery of the means of performing speech activity, the main of which are language signs. Mastering the system of the native language in the conditions of “speech” dysontogenesis is the second most important area of the professional activity of a correctional teacher. At the same time, psycholinguistics can provide the correctional teacher not only with the necessary theoretical knowledge, but also with a comprehensive methodology for psycholinguistic research of the specific features of speech activity operating with language signs. It is important to note that psycholinguistics (like no other field of scientific knowledge) helps the correctional teacher correctly understand the place and role of “language” work in the overall system of correctional education. It gives a clear idea that language ability (the ability to adequately use language signs in the process of speech communication) is an integral part of the general speech ability. This provides a special, professional view of the entire system of correctional and speech therapy work. The most important subject of research in psycholinguistics is speech as a psychophysiological process of generating and perceiving speech utterances. Over the past three to four decades, psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics have accumulated a large amount of theoretical and experimental material on the problem of studying the processes of speech production and speech perception, reflecting the basic laws of the process of realizing speech activity. This material is important for correctional teachers involved in the formation (or restoration) of speech in children and adults. The two main directions of “speech” work are the formation of expressive speech (processes of speaking and writing) and impressive speech (processes of speech perception). The study of the patterns and features of the course of these speech-thought processes and their violations in the pathology of cognitive activity is also the subject of research in psycholinguistics. Thus, the theory of speech activity, using the methodology of theoretical and experimental analysis, explores those aspects of human intellectual mental activity that are primarily of interest to a correctional teacher (in particular, a speech therapist) and which are the object of his special pedagogical influence.

Unfortunately, the problem of actively introducing psycholinguistic knowledge into the theory and methodology of correctional speech therapy work is still far from resolved. It must be admitted that over the last decade, more attention has been paid to the problem of creating educational and popular scientific literature on psycholinguistics in the higher education system. During this period, several textbooks and teaching aids were published (works by A.A. Leontyev, I.N. Gorelov and K.F. Sedov, PM Frumkina, A.A. Zalevskaya, V.P. Belyanin). At the same time, there are still very few special textbooks on psycholinguistics for teachers-defectologists. [1 - In addition to the above works edited by R.I. Lalaeva and L.B. Khalilova can only be called the textbook by V.P., published in 2005 by the same AST-Astrel Publishing House. Glukhova (57).] The proposed textbook “Fundamentals of the Theory of Speech Activity” suggests, to a certain extent, filling the lack of special educational literature on psycholinguistics. This manual is addressed to correctional teachers - students of the faculties of special pedagogy and psychology, as well as practitioners whose professional task is the formation of speech in conditions of general and speech dysontogenesis. In addition, we hope that this book will also be of interest to specialists working in the field of practical correctional psychology. In the proposed manual, those problems and aspects of the theory of speech activity that, in our opinion, are of decisive importance for the professional training of a correctional teacher are selected as the subject for coverage. The sections of general psycholinguistics that we have chosen for consideration contain theoretical and subject-methodological knowledge, which form the basis for the training of a specialist involved in the formation and correction of speech in children and adults. Knowledge of the patterns of formation and implementation of human speech activity studied by psycholinguistics, the traditionally established “norms” and rules for the use of language signs in speech-thinking activity are a necessary theoretical basis for the practical development by a correctional teacher of the methodology of correctional speech therapy work. This manual is based on the material developed by the authors for a course of lectures on the academic disciplines “Fundamentals of the Theory of Speech Activity” and “Psycholinguistics” for students of the defectology faculty of Moscow State Pedagogical University named after. M.A Sholokhov and the Faculty of Special Pedagogy and Psychology of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A.I. Herzen (St. Petersburg). V.A. Kovshikov wrote chapters 2 (§ 1–4), 7 (§ 1–6) and § 5 and 6 of part II of chapter 9; V.P. Glukhov – chapters 3, 4 (except § 1), 6 and 8. The remaining sections of the manual were prepared jointly by the authors. The basis of the lecture course was the scientific and theoretical concepts of speech activity by leading domestic psycholinguists - A.A. Leontyev, N.I. Zhinkin and I.A. Winter. A.A. Leontiev, the founder of the Russian school of psycholinguistics, is a leading theorist of modern psycholinguistics. The indisputable merit of AA Leontiev is not only the creation of a theoretical concept of speech activity, but also his deep scientific analysis of the development of psycholinguistic thought in foreign and domestic science. His comprehensive critical analysis of the main scientific concepts created by the leading psycholinguistic schools of the world, his vision of the problems of modern psycholinguistics and the prospects for its development have been and remain the standard for all leading specialists working in the field of this science. I.A. Zimnyaya is a representative of another Russian scientific school, a student and follower of N.I. Zhinkina. At one time, she developed and scientifically substantiated her own, original concept of speech activity, the undoubted advantage of which is its pronounced methodological orientation. The general principles of scientific analysis of facts and phenomena of speech activity are subordinated in this concept to the needs of language teaching and the formation of speech activity. Of course, this manual reflects the conceptual approaches to solving key problems of psycholinguistics of a number of other prominent scientists - psychologists and psycholinguists (A.R. Luria, L.S. Tsvetkova, T.V. Akhutina, A.M. Shakhnarovich, V.P. Belyanin and etc.). Taking as a basis the principle of “methodological conditionality and direction” of psycholinguistic research, we tried to make a “practical” way out of psycholinguistic theory into the methodology of correctional and speech therapy work: each section of this manual contains methodological conclusions and guidelines for the organization and substantive content of “speech” work , arising from certain psycholinguistic patterns of speech activity. When drawing up methodological recommendations, the authors relied on their own experience in speech therapy practice and research work, the subject of which is the formation of speech in children with systemic underdevelopment. The work experience of our colleagues – practicing speech therapists – was also used. It should be emphasized that this manual primarily pursues educational goals aimed at solving the problem of “basic” theoretical training of future speech therapists-practitioners, as well as expanding the range of psycholinguistic knowledge among practicing specialists. We see another function of our book in increasing interest in psycholinguistics among students-defectologists, in forming in them a personal need to master psycholinguistic knowledge, without which not a single correctional teacher can become a true professional in their field. V. P. Glukhov

§ 1. Subject of psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics is a science that studies the psychological and linguistic aspects of human speech activity, the social and psychological aspects of the use of language in the processes of speech communication and individual speech and mental activity. The subject of research in psycholinguistics (LP) is, first of all, speech activity as a specifically human type of activity, its psychological content, structure, types (methods) in which it is carried out, forms in which it is implemented, and the functions it performs. As noted by the founder of the national school of psycholinguistics A.A. Leontiev, “the subject of psycholinguistics is speech activity as a whole and the laws of its complex modeling” (120, p. PO). Another important subject of study of psycholinguistics is language as the main means of speech and individual speech-cognitive activity, the function of the basic signs of language in the processes of speech communication. “In psycholinguistics, the focus is constantly on the connection between the content, motive and form of speech activity and between the structure and elements of language used in a speech utterance” (PO, p. 16). Finally, another main subject of PL research is human speech, considered as a way of implementing speech activity (speech as a psychophysiological process of generating and perceiving speech utterances; various types and forms of speech communication). [2 - Zimnyaya I.A. Linguistic psychology of speech activity. – M., 2001.] The presence of not one, but several subjects of PL research is due to the specifics of this area of scientific knowledge, the fact that psycholinguistics is a “synthetic”, complex science that arose on the basis of a peculiar and unique unification, partial merging of two ancient human sciences civilization – psychology and the science of language (linguistics). The identification of the psychophysiological process of generation and perception of speech as the main and independent subject of LP is found in the works of a number of domestic and foreign researchers, and this approach received the most complete scientific justification in the works of I.A. Zimnyaya (1984, 2001, etc.). In one of his works of the last period, A.A. Leontyev points out that the goal of psycholinguistics is “to consider the peculiarities of the mechanisms of speech generation and perception in connection with the functions of speech activity in society and with the development of personality” (132, p. 298). In connection with this, the subject of LP “is the structure of the processes of speech production and speech perception in their relationship with the structure of language” (131, p. 144). In turn, psycholinguistic research is aimed at analyzing a person’s linguistic ability in relation to speech activity, on the one hand, and to the language system, on the other (120, 133, etc.). There is still no single, generally accepted definition of the subject of psycholinguistics research in domestic and foreign science; in different directions and schools of psycholinguistics it is defined differently. At the same time, some domestic researchers and many higher education teachers use a generalized definition of the subject of psycholinguistics proposed by A.A. Leontyev: “The subject of psycholinguistics is the relationship of personality with the structure and functions of speech activity, on the one hand, and language as the main “formative” of the image of the human world, on the other hand. different” (133, p. 19). The object of study of psycholinguistics is: a person as a subject of speech activity and a native speaker, the process of communication, communication in human society (the main means of implementation of which is speech activity), as well as the processes of speech formation and language acquisition in ontogenesis (during the individual development of a person). As A.A. points out. Leontiev, “the object of psycholinguistics is always a set of speech events or speech situations. This object is common to it with linguistics and other “speech” sciences” (133, p. 16). At the same time, the most important object of study of PL is the subject of speech activity - a person who uses this activity to master the surrounding reality (ideal and material). Research methods of psycholinguistics, as well as methods of other speech sciences, can be divided into three large groups: general methodology; special (i.e. concrete scientific) methodology; special (specific scientific) research methods. The general methodology is philosophy, understood as a worldview, as a certain general path of thought towards scientific truth and, accordingly, as a general “style of thinking”. [3 - Leontyev A. N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. – M., 1977.] Every researcher in any field of scientific knowledge must choose one or another philosophical concept (materialistic or idealistic; mechanistic or dialectical; sensualist, pragmatic, positivist, personalistic, etc.). The authors of this manual sought to consider the scientific facts of psycholinguistics in the structure of dialectical philosophy. This, in particular, is expressed in the fact that speech activity is considered taking into account its characteristic diverse and changing internal connections (for example, the diverse connections of all operations of speech activity - semantic, syntactic, lexical, morphological, morpho-syntactic, phonemic and phonetic - on all levels of generation and perception of speech) and external connections, i.e. connections of speech activity with the social, speech and non-speech environment, etc. At the same time, we proceeded from the fact that philosophy (a belief system, worldview) itself does not directly reveal facts (and laws) of a specific science, in our case psycholinguistics, but in a certain way pushes towards this. A special methodology consists of the laws of science, its theory, hypotheses, scientific concepts, axioms and concepts, methodological principles, etc. Let us consider the basic principles of psycholinguistics.

The first principle (or leading conceptual position) on which psycholinguistics relies is the presence of an organic connection between speech activity and non-speech activity; conditionality (determinism) of the first type of activity by the needs and goals of life and activity (primarily social) of a person and human society as a whole. The place of speech activity in the system of human activity.

The second fundamental methodological principle of psycholinguistics is the recognition of speech activity as a complex functional organization as its main property. Speech is a functional system, i.e. goal-oriented, aimed at achieving a certain result. [4 - More information about speech as a functional system is discussed in Chapter 8 of this manual, dedicated to the processes of speech generation and perception. (Approx. author V.G.)] This system is diverse and unstable. It (on a temporary and permanent basis) combines certain characteristics of its constituent operations (semantic, syntactic, lexical, morphological, morpho-syntactic, phonemic and phonetic) to achieve the specific goal of one or another (speech or non-speech) activity that is performed in specific situation of speech communication (7). The nature of these temporary associations depends on many external and internal conditions: on the nature and goals of the activity being carried out, the situation in which the activity takes place, on the personal characteristics of the speaker (the individual receiving the speech), his knowledge of culture (in the broad sense of the word), on the linguistic context, etc. For example, in some cases we use spoken language, and in others we use written language; in different situations of speech communication we speak extensively or extremely succinctly (“collapsed”), use literary language or a “slang” version (for example, youth, professional), etc. Thus, the content (meaning, sense) and form of speech activity in are largely determined by non-speech activities and the conditions in which non-speech and speech activities are performed. PC. Anokhin, an outstanding Russian physiologist, philosopher and psychologist, proposed a universal scheme of a functional system (with the highlighting of structure-forming “blocks”): Universal scheme of activity as a functional system (according to P.K. Anokhin)