7.1. Types and features of speech

Speech (English discourse) is a cognitive process associated with the use of language to present, store in oral or written form and subsequent processing of various information, as well as to exchange it with other people; one of the types of communicative activities carried out in the form of linguistic communication1. Man is a social being, and speech is the main means of human communication. Through speech, the psychology and experience of one person become accessible to other people, enrich them, and contribute to their development. Without it, a person would not have the opportunity to receive and transmit a variety of information, in particular, information that carries a large semantic load or captures something that cannot be perceived with the help of the senses (abstract concepts, not directly perceived phenomena, laws, rules, etc.) .P.). Without written language, a person would be deprived of the opportunity to find out how people of previous generations lived, thought and did. In terms of its vital significance, speech is multifunctional. It is not only a means of communication, but also a means of thinking, a carrier of consciousness, memory, a means of controlling the behavior of other people and regulating a person’s own behavior. There are two main functions of speech (Fig. 17).

Rice. 17. Basic functions of speech

The communicative function of speech is to transmit information from one person to another and is used in various types of communication. The significative function is associated with the fact that words always mean something and for a person they become symbols of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, “second” signals (in contrast to the first ones - stimuli coming from physical objects). In addition, the following functions are distinguished: intellectual - speech serves as a means of thinking for a person; regulatory - with the help of speech a person controls his own psyche and behavior; psychodiagnostic - based on the characteristics of a person’s speech, one can judge his mental processes, properties and states; psychotherapeutic - with the help of speech, people can exert a therapeutic influence on themselves and others (provide support, etc.). Physiological basis of speech. Human behavior is regulated not only by the first (as in animals), but also by the second (verbal) signaling system. This signaling system consists of the perception of words - heard, spoken (aloud or silently) and visible (when reading and writing). The ability to understand and then pronounce words arises in a child as a result of the association of certain sounds (words) with visual, tactile and other impressions of external objects. There are two “sides” of speech: expressive and impressive (Fig. 18).

Rice. 18. “Parts” of speech

Their development occurs asynchronously and is ensured by various mechanisms: some parts and centers of the brain are involved in the acoustic and optical perception of speech, others - in the motor regulation of the vocal apparatus. In general, the activity of the second signaling system is ensured by the function of the motor, auditory and visual analyzers, and the leading role in the regulation of speech belongs to the frontal cortex of the cerebral hemispheres. When studying speech, it is important to consider its relationship with language, because speech represents the ability and ability to use it. Speech and language are not the same thing; they are one, but not identical. The main function of human consciousness is awareness, or reflection, of existence (phenomena of the surrounding world, relationships between them, oneself in this world, etc.). Language and speech perform this function in one specific way - they reflect being, designating it. This is the unity of speech and language. The differences between them are as follows. Language is a system of sound, verbal and grammatical means, a system of symbols; This is a historical, cultural formation in which forms of social thinking and generalized meanings reflecting social experience are recorded. Languages arise, exist and develop according to their own laws. There are several thousand modern languages spoken by people, but besides them there is a significant number of so-called “dead” languages that are not currently used, as well as specific “artificial” languages. Speech is the activity of communication through language. Speech expresses the psychology of an individual person or a certain group of people (for example, professional, age), which are characterized by these specific features of speech. Language reflects the psychology of an entire people for whom it is native, with all its historically established national characteristics. Speech and word. There are three components in the structure of a word (Fig. 19).

Rice. 19. Psychological structure of the word

A word is a sign with which a person designates objects (their qualities, actions that can be performed with them, etc.); This is how the objective correlation of the word is realized. The connection between a word and an object is not real, provided for by nature, but “ideal”, but at the same time it is historical: the word has its own history, a life independent of us. Not every item itself has a separate, its own name. Humanity unites a certain set of objects into one class (that is, generalizes on the basis of identifying their essential properties) and in its language uses one word for this class - concept. Words-concepts allow us to go beyond the limits of direct experience in the knowledge of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, beyond what is given to us through the senses. At the same time, concepts can develop over time due to the enrichment of their volume and content. In other words, although the connection between a word and an object is fundamental and determining for its meaning, this connection is indirect - through the generalized content of the word, i.e. - through the concept. A generalized reflection of the subject content constitutes the meaning of the word. Meaning is the “unit” of both language and speech, the connecting link between them. When a person masters the meaning of a word, he gets to know the object from the point of view of its essential properties and functions in the system of human activity. This fact is the basis for classifying speech as a group of mental phenomena united by a common name - “cognitive processes”. The meanings of the same words can be different for different people, although their meanings are the same. Meaning as a component highlighted in a word is not universal and can appear in several aspects. Firstly, meaning and meaning “intersect” (the meaning of a word lies in the properties and purpose of the object that it denotes). But, secondly, words have certain “semantic fields” - so that in different contexts (situations, groups, etc.) they acquire meanings that differ from their direct meaning. Thirdly, when a word is frequently used in a certain, “indirect” conceptual context, initially additional semantic content is added to the previous meaning and assigned to the word. Fourthly, any word acquires a personal meaning for each individual person, inextricably linked with his life activity, motives and goals (the word evokes purely personal thoughts, feelings, etc.). Types of speech. There are several bases for classifying speech (Fig. 20).

Rice. 20. Classification of types of speech

Each of the structures, types and types of speech has its own specific characteristics and can be presented as a formation of varying degrees of complexity. Thus, in addition to words, sound speech includes a number of sound phenomena and expressive qualities of the voice, such as speech rate, modulation of voice pitch, rhythm, timbre, intonation, diction, specific sounds (laughter, grunting, etc.). Sign speech, firstly, can be represented by generally accepted gestures (with meanings assigned to them in a particular culture), expressive (accompanying a statement and serving to make speech more expressive) or special (for example, the language of the deaf and dumb, gestures accepted in some professional groups ). Secondly, expressive means can be classified into facial expressions (contractions of the facial muscles) and pantomimes (movements of the limbs, torso and head). Thirdly, gestures themselves can be classified into “illustrators”, “regulators”, “emblems”, “adaptors”, “affectors”, etc. The phonetic-phonemic (from the Greek phone - voice, sound) structure of speech is associated with mastering the sound composition of the language, the lexical (from the Greek lexis - word) - its vocabulary, and the grammatical (from the Latin gramma - record, letter) - its structure (methods of word formation, combining words into sentences, etc.). Oral speech is called speech, with the help of which people directly communicate with each other, pronouncing certain sets of sounds; written - speech that involves the transmission of its content using images on material media of symbols (signs, letters, hieroglyphs, etc.). Dialogical speech involves the participation of at least two people, and the speech statements of one are reactions to the remarks of the other. Monologue speech belongs to one person; it can also be pronounced in the presence of other people (for example, when giving a report to the public), but does not imply verbal reactions of the perceivers. External is the sounding, conscious speech that we use in everyday communication to exchange information with other people. Inner speech is involved in the control of mental processes and human behavior: at its level, thoughts are cast into verbal formulations, commands arise that a person gives to himself and which he himself carries out, implementing them in behavior. It is a derived form from external speech, but differs significantly from it: it does not have external manifestations obvious to others; often not realized by the person himself; allows “short circuits” (it misses what is taken for granted for the user). Speech plays a primary role in the formation of consciousness, i.e. what fundamentally distinguishes humans from animals. In the system of other mental processes, the main and determining one is the relationship of speech to thinking. Since speech is a form of existence of thought, they are in unity, but it is wrong to identify them with each other and believe that thinking is “speech minus sound.” Thinking and speech differ from each other in their structure, functioning and development. The unity of speech and thinking lies in the meaning of the word. On the one hand, meaning is a component of a word, on the other hand, meaning is a generalization, i.e. the act and result of thinking. As the child masters his native speech, the “level” of the meaning of the word gradually increases, i.e. the level of generalization of the properties and qualities of objects denoted by a given word. In speech psychology, the level of meaning characterizes the degree of formation of the lexical structure of speech. In the psychology of thinking, the level of generalization characterizes the development of a child’s thinking. Speech and thinking are connected by complex and often contradictory relationships. Significant differences between them are due to the fact that speech is subject to the laws of the grammatical structure of the language, and thinking is subject to logic. But the speech process is determined and regulated by semantic relationships between the meanings of words, i.e. verbal expression is regulated by the ideological content of our thoughts. And thinking, creating a speech form, is itself formed: thought usually arises in the form of trends, which at first have only a few emerging, not fully formed reference points; As a rule, at this moment the consciousness is dominated by the experience of its meaning for a given person. From this thought (tendency, process) the transition to a thought formalized in words is accomplished as a result of often very complex and sometimes difficult work. Speech has a significant impact on all other mental processes. With the help of speech, controlled and voluntarily regulated by a person, it becomes possible to control perception, attention, memory, and imagination. A person’s “verbal” orientation in the world regulates his perception and attention; semantic generalization of information and its presentation in the form of concepts makes it possible to store memorized information in much larger volumes and for a longer time, etc.

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Reasoning

Reasoning texts are quite complex in their design. First of all, you should understand why you need to write them in the first place.

The main task of such texts is to convey to the reader some idea, the author’s views on a particular problem. Therefore, he must initially formulate a thesis - the main idea of his text, what will be discussed further, then argue it in detail, citing evidence. At the end, the author must draw conclusions and consolidate everything that was said earlier.

Reasoning texts can be divided into three basic categories:

Proof.
Explanations.
Reflections.

However, the main task of reasoning is to convince the reader of something, to show him a different point of view. Reasoning is characterized by enumeration, repetition and clarification.

Examples of text with reasoning

As an example of a text-reasoning, one can cite the philosophical notes of Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy.

The totality of causes of phenomena is inaccessible to the human mind. But the need to find reasons is embedded in the human soul. And the human mind, without delving into the innumerability and complexity of the conditions of phenomena, of which each separately can be represented as a cause, grabs the first, most understandable convergence and says: this is the cause. In historical events (where the object of observation is the actions of people), the most primitive convergence seems to be the will of the gods, then the will of those people who stand in the most prominent historical place - historical heroes.

Test. How do types of speech differ from each other?

What part of speech is most often found in descriptions?
b) adverbs;
c) verbs.
What are the characteristics of reasoning?
b) the presence of numerous characteristics;
c) statement of the thesis and its detailed analysis, expression of the author’s thoughts on a particular topic.
What part of speech is most often found in narrative texts?
b) adjective;
c) verbs.

Scientific style

What features are inherent in the scientific style? It is the language of encyclopedias, textbooks, dissertations, monographs and scientific articles. As O. Stycheva, candidate of pedagogical sciences, notes, the scientific style is easy to recognize by the following features:

professional terminology;
evidence - the presence of facts, figures;
strict adherence to spelling or pronunciation standards;
objectivity and completeness of information.

There is no room for the author's subjective opinion here. The purpose of the text, presented in a scientific style, is to prove the truths revealed through research.

By the way, O. Stycheva’s article also serves as an example of such a text:

A characteristic feature of the style of scientific works is their saturation with terms, including international ones. L.V. Shcherba wrote that on average, terminological vocabulary in scientific information is about 25%, however, the collections of scientific works we analyzed indicate that, in general, the scientific style of Russian speech tends to increase this percentage
.

Scientific speaking style: Unsplash

Requirements and technology of public speaking

In order to be able to speak in different speech genres, you must first learn how to prepare texts in different styles. Different genres of public speaking involve the use of different kinds of techniques and rules to influence the audience.

General techniques and requirements for public speaking:

The beginning of the speech is carefully thought out and prepared. An unsuccessfully started dialogue can ruin the speaker’s image.
Drama. The presence of drama is important in any speech genre. It helps to interest the public through argument or conflict; it is used in life stories, descriptions of incidents, and tragedies.
Emotionality in public speech is considered a prerequisite for speaking. The audience should feel the speaker’s indifference to the topic of the speech, his attitude and experience. Monotonous dialogue without expressing emotions will not evoke the proper response from the audience.
Brief summary of thoughts. Brief, clear speech is perceived better by listeners and inspires more confidence. In order to meet the allotted time for speaking, you need to learn to speak briefly. It’s not for nothing that they say: “Brevity is the sister of talent.”
Conversational style of speech. Public speaking requirements include presentation style. It should be conversational, look like a conversation between people. A conversational style of speech makes it easier to assimilate information and draw attention to the topic. You cannot use a lot of foreign, scientific terms; incomprehensible words are replaced with understandable ones.
The end of the performance is prepared just as carefully as the beginning. The final stage of the speech must attract attention with bright and understandable phrases. The final words need to be rehearsed to establish the correct intonation of voice and tone.

The public speaking technique includes 12 sequential steps necessary to achieve the best results in public speaking. You will need it to write the correct speech and successfully interpret it.

Public speaking technology:

Determine the purpose of the speech.
We study the composition of the audience.
We create an image for the performance.
We determine the role for the performance (idol, master, patron, good, evil).
We are writing a speech.
We check it according to the rules for writing public text and compliance with moral requirements.
We build speech according to the rules of visual, kinetic, and auditory perception.
If necessary, we prepare the performance venue.
We are preparing for a successful outcome of the performance.
The performance itself.
We listen to criticism.
We monitor the public's reaction and analyze the impression made.

Having spoken in front of the public, we do not stop at the result obtained, we analyze the speech. The technique of public speaking includes the following necessary analysis of speech: structure of the text, tone of pronunciation, intonation, structure of speech, public interest in the speaker.

Analysis is necessary to further correct speech or behavioral errors, as well as to hone skills.

Art style

How to distinguish an artistic style? Most often it is used in literary works. Its task is to create an artistic image, to evoke emotions and experiences in the reader.

The artistic style is characterized by:

emotional speech, enhanced by literary devices - epithets, comparisons, metaphors, inversions;
stylistically colored vocabulary;
careful description of details;
individual style of the author;
direct speech;
use of various tropes.

Additionally, artwork can incorporate elements from other styles (such as conversational or formal) to create more vivid images.

The imagery of this style is well demonstrated by an excerpt from the book “The Life of Arsenyev” by Ivan Bunin:

Silence and shine, the whiteness of roofs thick with snow, a low winter garden, drowned in snow, reddishly blackened by bare branches, visible from both sides behind the house, our treasured hundred-year-old spruce, raising its sharp black-green top into the blue bright sky from behind the roofs of the house, because of its steep slope, like a snowy mountain peak, between two calmly and high smoking chimneys...

Artistic speech style: Unsplash