RHETORIC OF THE MIDDLE AGES
1. The emergence and flowering of spiritual eloquence in the 4th century. The Middle Ages is a thousand-year period in the history of European culture between antiquity and the Renaissance. “Average”, i.e. “middle”, “intermediate”, they were called by the thinkers of the Renaissance, who believed that after the collapse of the Roman Empire a period of cultural savagery began. But today the Middle Ages can be regarded as the era of the affirmation and triumph of the Christian faith. It was she who made a person personally responsible for his life, for all thoughts and deeds. We can say that Christianity is the foundation on which the entire European medieval civilization was based and the person of that era, no matter how different he was throughout medieval culture, no matter what class he belonged to, was first and foremost a Christian.
But medieval man in many ways still remained a pagan. Christian and barbarian ideas coexisted and fought in his soul and worldview. Therefore, the Christian church, trying to establish its dominance, used any means for this purpose and, above all, religious preaching, which was absent in the classical period of antiquity. The preacher in the Middle Ages is the most typical orator, and rhetoric becomes the “handmaiden of theology.”
The “Golden Age” of spiritual eloquence is considered to be the 4th century. It was during this period that Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. However, the beginning of the century did not bode well for adherents of the new faith. So, in 303–304. One after another, 4 decrees of Emperor Diocletian followed, declaring a real “war” on Christianity. But already in 311, a few days before his death, Emperor Galerius published an edict that granted Christians freedom of religion on the condition that they pray to their God for the health of the emperor. In the summer of 313, the emperors of the western and eastern empires jointly issued an edict recognizing the equal rights of Christianity among other religions. Gradually in the period from 313 to 324. other decrees provided the Christian Church with a privileged position. This religious policy of the imperial government in relation to this religion had far-reaching plans. It was Christianity that was to become the new official ideology, capable of uniting society and preventing the collapse of the state (under Emperor Constantine (285-337), the empire again became united). The Church took the position of the spiritual guardian of a state that had long been accustomed to living in obedience to clear and clearly formulated laws. In this regard, the need arose to clearly state the basic principles of their creed , and in a language familiar to the intellectuals of the empire. For this purpose religious debates , at which Christian speakers had to prove the truth of the new teaching and, thereby, finally shake the authority of outgoing paganism .
However, during theological debates, disagreements also arose among Christian preachers themselves. The reason for this was the struggle between traditional Christianity and various heresies , and the main weapon in this struggle was the word. In the 4th century. The most fundamental controversy flared up between adherents of the Nicene Creed (in 325, an “ecumenical” council of bishops took place in Nicaea, at which the main postulates of Christian teaching were formulated) and supporters of Bishop Arius (Arianism is a movement in Christianity in the 4th-6th centuries. ; Arians did not accept the basic dogma of official Christianity, according to which God the Son is consubstantial with God the Father). Secular power increasingly intervened in disagreements between churchmen: emperors supported one side or the other, quite often changing their preferences. At some times, not only clergy, but also ordinary citizens of the empire took part in this controversy. Markets, squares, and intersections were filled, according to eyewitnesses, with people arguing. “If you want to know about the price of bread, they answer: “The Father is greater than the Son”; you ask if the bathhouse is ready, they say: “The son came from nothing.”
In 337, an event occurred that was of great importance for the future of Christianity: the empire was again divided into two parts. The emperor, who reigned in the East, began to actively support the Arians. Under these conditions, the majority of bishops renounced their previous views. By the middle of the century, the Arians increasingly strengthened their positions, and many bishops professing the Nicene Creed were sent into exile (for example, Athanasius of Alexandria was sent into exile 15 times for adhering to his former views). The unwitting savior of Orthodox Christianity turned out to be Emperor Julian the Apostate. He sympathized with paganism and equalized the rights of all religions. The fight between Christianity and heresies did not interest him at all, so all the exiles were given the opportunity to return to their former places.
The peculiarities of the historical development of the Western and Eastern empires gradually began to lead to differences between the Christian churches of the West and the East . These processes especially intensified in the 5th century. The Roman popes claimed a dominant position in the Christian world; in Byzantium they were opposed by the patriarchs of Constantinople. The rivalry between these church organizations became the source of new polemics on issues of dogma and cult. As a result of this, the spiritual eloquence of the Middle Ages was divided into Western (European) and Eastern (Byzantine).
2. Christian preaching in Europe (Western branch). One of the most prominent representatives of the Western branch of spiritual eloquence was Aurelius Augustine (Blessed) (354-430). He was born in Tagaste (North Africa). His mother is St. Monica was a Christian and had a huge spiritual influence on her son, but his father remained a pagan. In his adolescence, Augustine studied in Carthage (the capital of Roman Africa) the main science of that time - rhetoric, without mastering which it was impossible to participate in public life, speak in court, trading, in the words of Augustine, “beautiful lies” and “victorious talkativeness.” There, in 374, he began teaching rhetoric and became one of the most famous orators. In his Confessions, Augustine recalls that he participated in competitions of dramatic poets, but the forum was especially attractive, where, according to him, he would be showered with praise the more skillfully he lied. After some time, Aurelius comes to Italy, where he continues to teach rhetoric.
After a ten-year stay in the Manichaean community, Augustine left it and became a Neoplatonist, and then, under the influence of the preaching of Bishop Ambrose of Milan, from whom he was baptized in 387, a Christian. Here it is worth remembering that even in his early youth, having become familiar with the Bible, Augustine, with the arrogance of a rhetorician, condemned it for its darkness of judgment and tongue-tiedness. It seemed to him that the truth could not be taught so ugly. Now the rawness and artlessness of Scripture made a completely different impression on him. Augustine realized that the highest truth only benefits from simplicity of presentation. After this, he began to point to the Bible as a source of both spiritual and secular knowledge, in particular rhetoric. Returning to Africa, Aurelius sold all his property and settled with a group of Christians in Tagaste to lead a life of prayer in poverty.
In 391, the bishop of the North African city of Hippo, heeding the requests of believers, ordained Augustine to the priesthood, and then entrusted him with preaching. Soon Augustine became his closest and full-fledged assistant, and in 395 he inherited the episcopal see. Until his death, he preached with inspiration and fought fiercely against the heretical trends of his time.
The subject of constant concern of Augustine the Blessed was the conversion of pagan wisdom and the works of ancient authors to the affirmation and cultural enrichment of Christianity. Augustine did not completely outlive and could not outlive the person in himself who was brought up on the best achievements of antiquity. Being the Bishop of Hippo, renowned for his piety and asceticism, in one of his letters he will write a curious thing, discussing the apocryphal Gospel, which describes the ascension of Christ to heaven, accompanied by the Old Testament prophets and patriarchs. Augustine the Blessed would like to include Plato, Cicero and Virgil, who, in his opinion, had a presentiment of God the Savior, to the doubt of those who ascended with Christ. “ Not only among the orators and poets who despised and made a mockery of their false gods and their deeds were those who professed one God... But also among those who were mistaken regarding the worship of God and gave praise to the world, and not to its Creator, there were, without a doubt people who lived honestly set an excellent example of purity, selflessness, abstinence
"
Noteworthy is the fact that Augustine also includes the orator Cicero among these “righteous men.” But this is not surprising, because the bishop believed that for religious education and understanding the merits of Christian literature, familiarity with grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and mathematical sciences is necessary .
These disciplines do not lead away from the knowledge of Holy Scripture, but, on the contrary, lead to it. Thus, the purpose of rhetoric is the duty of cognition of truth as comprehension of the essence of theocentrism. The main merit of St. Augustine is that he tried to carry out a synthesis of ancient culture and Christianity, without which the new religion would never have become pan-European, and then world-wide.
3. Eastern branch of spiritual eloquence (Byzantium). The beginning of the practical formation of Byzantine spiritual eloquence dates back to the 4th century. At its origins are such famous speakers and preachers as Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa.
The rise of Christian oratory in Byzantium can be attributed to two reasons :
· firstly, the intensification of the struggle between paganism and Christianity, which was victorious over it, which gradually began to exert an increasing influence on the political and spiritual life of the empire;
· secondly, the general “fall” of education, which resulted in a decrease in the educational value of literature and theater; In this regard, living speech with its methods of direct and emotional appeal to a person and the masses acquired special significance.
A special place in the design of the eastern branch of spiritual eloquence is occupied by “three great Cappadocians” - Basil of Caesarea, nicknamed “The Great,” Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa. It was during the period of their active activity (70–90 years of the 4th century) that the final establishment of the dominance of Christianity (Orthodoxy), its last major clashes with paganism, an acute intra-church struggle, which stimulated the development of dogmatic issues, and the development of the genre of Christian preaching, took place.
Cappadocia has always been looked upon as a rather wild, backward and uncultured region of Byzantium. Its inhabitants were considered people who were slow, withdrawn, taciturn, and envious and greedy due to poverty. Educated intellectuals rarely appeared here, especially those who could gain any significant fame in the general imperial arena. Cappadocian rhetoricians have traditionally been the subject of widespread ridicule for their tongue-tiedness and poor pronunciation. But by the middle of the 4th century. the situation has changed noticeably. A small but very influential cultural elite has developed in the cities of Cappadocia; the spread of Christianity only strengthened its position. The peculiarity of the worldview of these people was the lack of a strong connection with ancient traditions and blind attachment to the old heritage. This circumstance allowed them to more critically perceive previous cultural achievements and flexibly adapt them to pressing needs. The famous “Cappadocia circle” consisted of church leaders born into families of convinced Christians with a long tradition of adherence to the new faith, who, with full religious conviction and high theological training, could use for the needs of the church everything necessary and suitable from the vast ancient heritage.
The actual head of the circle was Basil of Caesarea (329-379) - the largest church figure of the era, who in many ways prepared and ensured the victory of Orthodoxy in the Byzantine Empire. He was born into a wealthy family, educated and deeply religious, which had been persecuted even under the Emperor Diocletian. Of his four brothers, only one became a doctor, the rest, including Vasily, became bishops. Being the son of a rhetorician, he was prepared from childhood to inherit the same profession. After his father's school, Vasily studied in Caesarea Palestine, Constantinople, and Athens. He soon became one of the best masters of rhetoric. He was distinguished by the accuracy and clarity of his style, developed when writing court speeches, which Vasily was drafting upon his return to his homeland. His character and taste, moderate and restrained, predisposed him to the perception of the traditions of the Antiochian school, with its Atticism, which required clarity and clarity of presentation.
In the 60s, Vasily radically changed his lifestyle. An acute mental crisis caused him to make a sharp break with his past and become an ascetic. After visiting the monastic monasteries of Egypt, Syria and Palestine, Vasily, upon returning to Cappadocia, created his own type of cenobitic monastery. In 370 he was elected bishop of Caesarea. It was in this post that Vasily’s abilities as a politician and a talented organizer, distinguished by a practical mind, colossal capacity for work, strong economic acumen, firmness and authority of character, were revealed. Within a few years, he gained greater authority than any other Asia Minor bishop of that time. Essentially, Vasily became the head of Orthodoxy in the east and contributed to its establishment in Byzantium. For this he received the nickname “The Great”.
The contribution of Basil of Caesarea to the development of Byzantine spiritual eloquence is great: as a systematizer, he strictly and definitely divided Christian “speeches” into exegetical (interpretation of Scripture), catechetical (moral and edifying) and panegyrist .
In the bishop's sermons, some new features and tendencies that are characteristic specifically of Christian eloquence clearly appear: the desire not to highlight the very personality of the author, which was regarded as “pagan vanity.” The greatness of the plot and theme, its independent significance, made the desire to demonstrate one’s oratory skill inappropriate, for the main goal was to give the listener spiritual food and ensure that he assimilates it. Therefore, Vasily demanded that listeners interrupt him during the sermon and ask what they did not understand: “ You sit around me like judges, not like students.”
" Basil the Great's sermons are written in precise and clear language. He prepared them in advance, but deliberately wrote them in such a manner that they gave the impression of improvisation.
Another major figure of Eastern spiritual eloquence was Gregory of Nazianzus, or Theologian (c. 329-390) , who received this nickname for his treatises on dogmatics. A close friend of Basil of Caesarea, he received a rhetorical education in the schools of Cappadocia, Caesarea Palestine, and Alexandria, completing it with ten years of study in Athens. Leaving Greece around 385. he returned to Nazians, where he became a rhetorician. Unlike Vasily, strict and organized, internally collected and disciplined, Gregory was an impressionable person, prone to self-absorption and reflection. For a long time he was tormented by the conflict between the “active life” and the “contemplative life.” In 361 he was ordained and led the Orthodox community of Constantinople. In 381, at a council, he was elected bishop of the capital.
Gregory of Nazianzus owns 45 conversations, among which the conversations and sermons of the first years, the Constantinople sermons of 379-381 stand out. and eulogies . He is also the author of 5 famous theological discourses in defense of Orthodoxy against the Arians), presented in the form of intimate conversations, and two accusatory speeches against Emperor Julian the Apostate.
Gregory's style is characterized by a conscious desire to preserve ancient linguistic forms and the use of secular pagan eloquence to “ know the truth.”
"
True, he believed that in sermons “ one should, as far as possible, avoid the bookish style, but lean more toward the colloquial
.”
The third of the “Cappadocian fathers” was Basil’s younger brother Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335-394). He also received an excellent philosophical and rhetorical education. For some time he was a rhetorician. Under the influence of Vasily, he entered the clergy and in 371 became a bishop. He was a contemplative person, an “armchair scientist” and became the largest representative of theological thought of his time, widely using methods of free, allegorical interpretation of the Bible. His rhetoric is an example of learned Christian rhetoric. The style of Gregory of Nyssa is ponderous. He does not overuse quotes, preferring to express everything in his own words. The somewhat lush solemnity of the style does not interfere with expressiveness; he formulates even the most abstract thoughts with convincing clarity.
The pinnacle of eastern spiritual eloquence is the work of the younger contemporary of the “great Cappadocians,” John Chrysostom (c. 350-407) , in whose works the assimilation of the traditions of ancient culture by the Christian church reached complete classical completeness.
John was born and raised in the Syrian city of Antioch, a major cultural center of the Byzantine Empire, where the traditions of various peoples crossed. Chrysostom's mother Anfusa was the most enlightened woman of the era and gave her son an excellent education at home. John studied rhetoric at the school of the famous orator Libanius (314-393). Chrysostom spent a short time as a lawyer, which allowed him to study in detail the customs and customs of the Antiochian world, which he was familiar with due to the nature of his activity. An important event in the life of John was the baptism he received from the Bishop of Antioch, Meletius, who became his teacher in Christian theology. Then he went into the desert and spent 4 years in fasting and prayer. Upon returning to Antioch, John was ordained a deacon and began preaching, gathering a large audience. In 398, Chrysostom was appointed bishop of Constantinople. His accusatory sermons against the corrupt high society and his call for a modest lifestyle aroused the hatred of the court and wealthy citizens. “ Many people condemn me,”
he said
, “because I attack the rich, but why are they unfair to the poor?
I blame not the rich man, but the predator. You are rich? I'm not bothering you. But are you a robber? I condemn you. Both the rich and the poor are equally my children .” John also spoke negatively in relation to slavery, which was widespread at that time, which he considered the fruit of violence, wars and sin. Taking Chrysostom's accusations as a personal insult, Empress Eudoxia convened a special council, which condemned John and sent him into exile. However, Constantinople was soon hit by a strong earthquake. Seeing in the natural cataclysm God's punishment for the unjust condemnation of the preacher, the empress returned Chrysostom to the capital with honors, but in 404 he again subjected him to exile - first to Armenia, and then to Pitiunt (now Pitsunda). On the way to his final exile, John died. However, the authority and glory of Chrysostom as a Christian preacher prevailed 30 years after his death. The native grandson of the persecutor John was forced to solemnly transfer his ashes to the Constantinople Church of St. Apostles.
What is unique about the eloquence of John Chrysostom in comparison with his predecessors? What new did he introduce into the formation of the eastern branch of spiritual eloquence?
John was not only a brilliant, but also an exceptionally prolific speaker: he wrote about 1000 sermons. But this does not mean at all that his speeches were written hastily. On the contrary, they were distinguished by filigree decoration of form and content. What was characteristic of his rhetorical style? It merged into an organic fusion the best features of ancient rhetoric and new, typically Christian ones. Chrysostom did not abandon Atticism, but after 387 he supplemented it with the pomp and richness of Asianism. His style is distinguished by transparency and lightness, naturalness of presentation, clearly placed semantic accents, great accuracy and capacity of examples, and subtlety of moralistic observations.
His fame as a preacher did not diminish throughout the Middle Ages both in Byzantium and in the West. He received the nickname Chrysostom already in the 6th century. in Europe. In the 8th century it (in Greek by Chrysostom) firmly established itself in Byzantium. John became one of the most famous orators of the Middle Ages, comparable only to the greatest orators of antiquity - Demosthenes and Cicero. Already from V, his sermons are translated into Latin, then into Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, and later in the Balkans and Rus'.
Thus, the beginning of the formation of spiritual prose in the 4th century. associated with the names of the “great Cappadocians”, who developed in detail only individual elements of it. This process was completed by John Chrysostom, who created the general style of the eastern branch of spiritual eloquence.
4. Oratory of Ancient Rus'. Rus' became acquainted with oratorical prose in the century X - beginning. XI century based on the example of the best examples of Byzantine and South Slavic eloquence. After Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich baptized Rus' in 988, a period of development of the spiritual riches of Christian countries began in the history of ancient Russian culture. Old Russian scribes borrowed the theory of eloquence from Byzantium, where there was a holistic and harmonious system of oratorical genres. The work of such remarkable Byzantine orators as Basil the Great, John Chrysostom and others had a great influence on the development of South Slavic eloquence, on the inspired speeches of Constantine the Philosopher, John Exarch of Bulgaria, Clement of Ohrid. Kievan Rus, in essence, was the heir to the Greco-Slavic rhetorical tradition.
The time of birth of ancient Russian eloquence is the 9th century. And in the very first original works of oratorical prose, characteristic features are clearly manifested :
· firstly, despite the translated Byzantine and South Slavic examples that were available to ancient Russian scribes, despite the borrowed themes and methods of designing oratorical works, ancient Russian authors strive in their own way to comprehend the facts of reality, to go beyond traditional topics, to become closer to modernity, to history of their people;
· secondly, in the history of ancient Russian oratory there seems to be no period of apprenticeship. The works of the first Russian rhetoricians - Metropolitan Hilarion, Theodosius of Pechersk, Kirill of Turov - amaze with the perfection of form, the depth and originality of ideas, and the novelty of poetic finds;
· thirdly, since in Rus' the practice of oral public speaking was not widespread (this in no way means that speakers did not speak to the public at all), speeches were created primarily as written monuments, designed not for immediate utterance, but for reading and long-term reflection, which is why authors so often turn to “hearing and reading.”
Thus, Old Russian eloquence, while remaining in the general mainstream of the Byzantine-Slavic tradition, is at the same time a step forward in the literary development of countries that are close to each other in matters of government, ideology, and culture.
In the oratorical prose of Ancient Russia, two types can be distinguished: didactic (teacher) eloquence and panegyric (solemn) eloquence . Each of them has its own theme, language, and artistic means. Didactic eloquence usually pursued the goals of moral instruction, information, and explanation of new concepts. The speakers, focusing on ordinary people in need of teaching, sought to speak simply, artlessly, almost without resorting to quoting authoritative sources. These writings contained demands for modesty, hard work, caring for family and parents, the pursuit of knowledge, aversion to drunkenness, etc. Thus, the speakers set themselves serious tasks of instilling high moral qualities and ideals of civil service. Monuments of panegyric eloquence were dedicated to significant dates in church history or dedicated to events of national significance - a successful campaign against the enemy, the construction of a cathedral, etc. Within the chosen topic, ancient Russian authors often touched on important issues of domestic and foreign policy, government, ecclesiastical and secular power . These works are addressed primarily to educated people who are able to comprehend the depth of the idea, appreciate the art of the master in developing the theme, and enjoy the beauty of the style, solemn and ornate. This was achieved by using complex tirades, syntactic constructions; speakers often resorted to playing with cognate words, question-and-answer forms of presentation, rhetorical questions and exclamations, and the use of all kinds of tropes.
The classification of genres of Old Russian eloquence is complex, but the most common were teaching (for didactic essays) and speech (solemn eloquence). The latter is characterized by the following genre features :
· the word is fundamentally journalistic, its main functions are to influence public opinion, express and explain the needs that occupied society at that time;
· the author of the word is a kind of “sorrower of the Russian land”, who understands the enormous responsibility for the fate of his homeland; with all the awareness of his personal “smallness”, “thinness”, “unworthiness” - a traditional Christian expression of modesty - he cannot remain silent, seeing the “great disorders of this century”, tries to actively intervene in public life and teaches both ordinary people and the “strong of this world";
· the Church Slavonic language and cultic purpose often turn out to be only the outer shell of the word, under which the secular, worldly content is hidden; Thus, it was in this form that many political ideas were first expressed in Rus', and discoveries were made in the field of philosophy, aesthetics, and literature.
The most outstanding representatives of ancient Russian eloquence were Metropolitan Hilarion and Kirill of Turov.
about the life and fate of Metropolitan Hilarion . He was rightfully considered the best church speaker of Ancient Rus' in the 9th century. According to the testimony of the Tale of Bygone Years, in 1051, the Great Prince of Kiev Yaroslav the Wise and a council of Russian bishops appointed Hilarion, “of Russian birth,” as metropolitan. This decision can be considered the first step towards the liberation of the Russian Church from the administrative influence of the Byzantine Church, which previously regularly sent its metropolitans to Rus'. By this time, the “Sermon on Law and Grace” had already been created (no earlier than 1037 and no later than 1050). Information about Hilarion's further tenure at the metropolitan see is scanty. It is only known that in 1055 a Greek named Ephraim was again appointed to this place, but the fate of Hilarion is never spoken of anywhere else.
“The Sermon on Law and Grace” (solemn eloquence) is worthy to stand next to the best works of Byzantine oratory. The Metropolitan, following the rules of Greco-Slavic eloquence in the field of form, composition, and poetic means, showed himself to be an original thinker. His work is a kind of political declaration, a pointedly polemical glorification of the Russian land, a harmonious development of a single patriotic concept - the independence of Rus' from Byzantium, its equality with all Christian countries. For example, when talking about the acceptance of the teachings of Christ by the Russian people, Hilarion does not mention a word that this was done under the direct influence of Byzantium. On the contrary, he claims that Russia, of its own free will, became a Christian country and does not need anyone’s religious tutelage: “ Our good God has had mercy on all countries and has not rejected us. He desired - and saved us, and brought us to an understanding of the truth
».
In the word, praise is given to Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (“ Rejoice, the apostle, in the lords, did not raise the dead in body, but raised us, the souls of the dead, from the disease of idolatry, who died! With you we came closer to God and Christ - eternal life - came to know
"), to his son - Yaroslav the Wise, who continued the work of his father, his glorious deeds, heralding the future, even greater greatness of the Russian land. In the final part of the “word” the praise is transferred to a specific historical event - the completion of the construction of defensive structures around Kyiv.
The time of real flowering of Russian eloquence was the 12th century. Its most famous representative was Kirill Turovsky . It is known that Cyril, the son of wealthy parents, early became an ascetic monk and spent his entire life reading and interpreting Christian books. His fame spread throughout the Turov land. At the proposal of the prince and with the support of the people, Kirill was installed as bishop in Turov.
More than a hundred years have passed since the baptism of Rus'. “ The rulers of this world and people mired in everyday affairs diligently demand book teaching
"- wrote Kirill Turovsky.
At that time, many believers were no longer satisfied with the simple interpretation of the texts of the Holy Scriptures: they wanted to receive pleasure from the art of the preacher. They wanted to listen to sermons compiled according to all the rules of oratory. And these requirements were fully met by the speeches of Kirill Turovsky. Rhythm and fluency of the language, a syllable saturated with ornate turns and exquisite comparisons, images that are colorful, abstract and at the same time visible, almost really tangible, rhetorical amplification (the topic varies verbally, develops in all its semantic and emotional shades until its content will be completely exhausted, as a result it takes the form of a stylistically closed fragment - a rhetorical tirade) - these are the stylistic features of Cyril’s “words”. Here is how, for example, he asserted the importance of spiritual values: “ The honeycomb is sweet, and sugar is a good deed, but the bookish mind is kinder than both, for it is the treasure of eternal life
.”
If a golden chain studded with pearls and precious stones pleases the eyes and hearts of those who see it, then all the more pleasant is “ spiritual beauty, holy holidays, cheering faithful hearts and illuminating souls
.”
Based on the Byzantine and Russian folk tradition, Kirill Turovsky created his own unique and original style, the aesthetic significance of which is comparable to “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Contemporaries called Cyril “Chrysostom, who shone above all others in Rus'.” Apparently no later than the 13th century. he was canonized, and his oratorical skill played no small role in this.
Development of rhetoric in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
Features of medieval ethics06/10/2009/abstract
Basic ethical concepts in medieval philosophy. Religious justification for ethics and morality. Love as the basis of social organization, social relations in Christianity. The role of Aristotle’s “Nicomaxian Ethics” and Thomas Aquinas’s comments to it.
Ethics of the Middle Ages
04/07/2010/abstract
Prerequisites for the development of Christian ethics. Views of Francis of Assisi and Giovanni Bonaventura on the relationship between man and God. Teachings of Augustine the Blessed and Thomas Aquinas. Ethics of chivalry. Urban ethics and the emergence of educational ethics.
History of the development of ethics
11/17/2008/course of lectures
History of ethical teachings. Ethical teachings of the ancient world. Ethical teachings of the Middle Ages. Features and main problems of ethics of the New Age. Ethical directions in the 19th century. Some teachings in ethics of the twentieth century. Historical development of morality.
History of ethical teachings
6.12.2009/test work
Ethics of Ancient China (Taoism, Eon-Fucianism, Mohism) and India. Fundamentals of ancient ethics (Heraclitus, Plato, Socrates). Religious ethics of the Middle Ages. Ethics of Islam: doctrine of virtues and vices. Moral philosophy of modern times. Ethical thought of the twentieth century.
Ossovskaya’s book “Knightly Ethos”
10/8/2009/book analysis
Studies in the history of morality and ethics. Works by Maria Ossowska, a Polish philologist, “Knightly Ethos” and “Bourgeois Morality.” Analysis of the aristocratic moral ideal that prevailed in the public consciousness of antiquity and the Middle Ages.
Main problems and types of ethical teachings
02/17/2009/course work
History of ethical teachings, conditions for their formation and problems, main periods: general characteristics of European ethics, ethical teachings of the Ancient East, antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, modern times and the twentieth century. Ethical thought of Belarus.
Renaissance Aesthetics
06/1/2010/essay
A study of the features of the aesthetics of the Renaissance, when the process of a radical breakdown of the medieval system of views on the world and the formation of a new, humanistic ideology took place. Characteristics of the aesthetic and humanistic concepts of Campanella and Bruno.
Aesthetics of the Renaissance (main features, personalities)
05/17/2010/abstract
The Renaissance as a revival of ancient sciences and arts, its essence and comparison with medieval culture. Characteristic features of the aesthetics of the Renaissance, features of its influence on various fields of science and art, as well as the views of their main representatives.
Aesthetic thought of Western civilization
06/26/2008/abstract
Aesthetic thought of antiquity. Concepts of Western thinkers of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Classicism. Aesthetic thought of the Enlightenment. The main trends in the development of aesthetic thought in Western European countries and in Ancient Rus'. Russian classicism.
Ethics of the Middle Ages
7.12.2009/abstract
Corporate morality of the Middle Ages. The idea of God as the core of the ethical views of medieval Europe, features of moral traditions. Philosophical and ethical thought of the Middle Ages. Subjectivist ethical teachings of the Middle Ages. An ethical view of man.
