Fundamentals of public speaking: rules for speaking at a speech

The ability to win over an audience is the most important skill for a person striving for success in various areas of life. All studies of the phenomenon of first impression confirm one thing: our brain perceives the initial assessment as the most complete and correct. The first impression is very stable; everything that contradicts it is considered an exception by the brain. To erase a negative opinion about yourself, you will have to correct the situation many times in different contexts, otherwise the unpleasant impression will remain dominant.

The Roman patricians placed the basics of oratory above knowledge of the laws. Since then, little has changed. The ability to speak effectively and impress the public is a necessary quality of a leader. A person who masters rhetoric expresses his thoughts clearly and clearly, listens and hears opponents, is able to convince skeptics and come to an agreement with opponents.

A charismatic leader is a success for the company. Some bright personalities are charismatic by nature, but this is very rare, so entire PR departments work on the image of top managers. And yet, no PR person can speak in front of the public or negotiate for his boss, so the manager has no choice but to learn the art of public speaking. This is necessary not only for top managers and public politicians; public speaking skills are necessary for managers at any level, teachers, and anyone who plans to advance their career.

Content

• What a speaker should be able to do
• What is the basis of oratory?
• Development of public speaking skills
• Composition of oratorical speech
• How to structure a speech according to the rules of oratory. A clear structure of the speech.
• Competent and expressive language
• Objective and useful information
• Balance between emotions and facts
• Laconic speech
• Appropriate pauses
• Portrait of the audience
• Improvisation
• Prepared jokes, quotes, stories
• Sense of humor
• Narrative style

What a speaker should be able to do

An orator is a speaker who knows how to speak in front of an audience and has a whole arsenal of rhetorical skills. The speaker can be called a man-orchestra, he:

• knows the techniques of oratory - competently, beautifully and intelligibly conveys his thoughts to the public;
• knows the psychological mechanisms of influence on the audience;
• has acting skills - understands the laws of stage speech, controls gestures and facial expressions;
• feels the response of the audience and knows how to improvise;
• He is well versed in the topic he is talking about.

Back in Ancient Greece, where rhetoric was born and flourished, there was debate as to whether eloquence was an innate talent of the elite, or a skill that could be developed. Many people are still convinced that successful public speaking is the destiny of charismatic leaders, while this option is not available to others. But the story of the famous ancient Greek orator Demosthenes is a lesson for everyone who considers oratory abilities to be exclusively a gift from God.

Demosthenes was tongue-tied, had a quiet voice and constantly twitched his shoulder. It is difficult to imagine a person more unsuited to rhetoric. But the dream of becoming a famous speaker came true thanks to exceptional perseverance and endless training. So the fame of Demosthenes’ talent has survived for a couple of millennia and has become an example of how to develop oratory, having obvious contraindications to public speaking.

What is the basis of oratory?

Rhetoric was born in Ancient Greece as the science of oratory. Even then, it united the art of eloquence itself, the science that studies oratory techniques, and the very process of persuasion with the help of words.

In short, what public speaking is is the skill of public speaking in front of an audience. Rhetoric teaches how to effectively influence the public based on three main factors:

1. Ethos - the conditions for delivering a speech: time, place, composition of the audience.
2. Pathos is the message of the speaker, the topic and goals of his speech.
3. Logos - linguistic means and oratorical techniques in speech.

Depending on the specific situation (ethos), different types of eloquence :

• academic rhetoric - lectures, scientific reports;
• socio-political rhetoric - parliamentary speeches, diplomatic speeches, manifestos and reports, rallies, military-patriotic speeches;
• judicial rhetoric - speeches of prosecutors and defense attorneys;
• theological rhetoric - sermons, the word of the pastor;
• social and everyday rhetoric - table and welcoming speeches, civil funeral services, commercial eloquence.

Pathos determines the purpose and features of the style of oratory :

• informational speech communicates new facts or knowledge to the audience;
• entertaining - designed to amuse and captivate the audience;
• persuasive - has the goal of convincing listeners that the speaker is right;
• agitating - calls on the audience to take some action;
• inspiring - infects with emotions.

Kinds

Oratory can be divided into several types. They all have something in common, but differ from each other in the behavior of the lecturer, his focus on results and the characteristics of interaction:

1. Socio-political speech. Involves a long speech by the speaker. His voice must be loud to cover a large amount of area. Policy issues related to social interaction are covered.
2. Judicial speech. The speeches of the prosecutor, judge, and lawyer contain the necessary information. Words must be pronounced clearly, with tangible pressure. Judicial speech involves the use of a business style. There is no place for display of emotions and excessive gestures.
3. Social and household. It is pronounced at an ordinary level and does not differ in scale. It happens when a person considers it necessary to prove something to his interlocutor.

1. Church speech. Characterized by monotony and great concentration. From the outside, it seems that the person is overly concentrated on pronouncing every word. Examples: confession, sermon.

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Development of public speaking skills

The definition of oratory in the modern sense is, in essence, the culture of speech and psychological skills that make a person effective in the field of public speaking and interpersonal communication. Rhetoric uses emotional and psychological techniques to influence listeners and takes into account the portrait of the audience. Its main task is not so much to convey knowledge as to form an opinion and convince.

Why is public speaking necessary today? A speaker who has mastered the skills of eloquence not only controls himself during a speech, he completely controls the situation. Developing skills is impossible without constant training. Rhetoric has never been a mere theory; in this discipline, quantity of practice develops into quality.

The speech of a trained speaker has special properties:

• contains linguistic and non-verbal methods of influencing the listener;
• focused on receiving feedback from the audience;
• The effectiveness of influencing the public is achieved through the interaction of the psychological state of the speaker and his authority among the audience.

Fear of public speaking

Anxiety and self-doubt prevent a speaker from expressing his thoughts clearly. He often gets confused, his speech becomes confused and the viewer has to strain to catch the essence of what is being said. Excitement and fear of an audience can lead to failure of any performance. How not to be afraid of public speaking?

The first step to solving the problem is to analyze and identify those factors due to which a person experiences discomfort before going on stage and is afraid of the audience. Most often, the reasons for such a reaction are psychological in nature. Uncontrollable fear and anxiety can occur due to:

1. childhood memories (unsuccessful performance at an early age);
2. strict upbringing (prohibitions and restrictions on the part of parents, the belief that one should not attract the attention of other people);
3. complexes (dissatisfaction with oneself, expectation of laughter from the audience);
4. painful pride (fear of criticism, desire to be perfect in everything).

Fear of public speaking is a very common phenomenon, familiar to almost everyone who has worked with a large audience. A little anxiety makes a speech more emotional and interesting, but it is very important to ensure that it does not develop into panic.

Read next: 15 tips to overcome your fear of public speaking

How to avoid anxiety before public speaking

There are many techniques known to help you cope with emotions and overcome stage fright. Exercising and playing sports before a performance helps you relax and relieves nervous tension. A cup of warm milk or herbal decoction with honey soothes and makes the voice softer and clearer.

Composition of oratorical speech

The composition of an oratorical speech is the structure of a speech, where each part works to present the speaker’s idea in the most convincing way. A thoughtful composition keeps the audience in constant suspense. Any speech must have an introduction, a main semantic part and a conclusion. One of the secrets of oratory is that a successful beginning and ending can “stretch out” a weak middle.

1. The purpose of the introduction is to win over the audience, arouse interest, and establish the necessary form of interaction with the public. A bright opening draws attention to the speaker. It is good form to outline the topic and issues of the speech at the very beginning. To hook the audience, tell a relevant life story, an interesting fact, a paradox, or ask an unexpected question on the topic.
2. The purpose of the main part of the oratorical speech is to convince listeners of the legitimacy of the thesis presented with the help of arguments, examples, and refutations. Facts, logic and oratory techniques that hold attention work here.
3. The conclusion is not just a summary of what has been said and summing up. In conclusion, pathos is important, since here an emotional impression is formed, the reaction the speaker needs to all of the above. The listener may not remember all the points and arguments, but the strong emotion at the end leaves a strong impression of the speech as a whole. The main thing is not to end on a minor note. Regardless of the topic, the ending should inspire optimism.

Example, similarity and comparison

Comparison is probably the main, most basic technique of oratory. The most important rule of rhetoric is that everything abstract must be presented visually with the help of comparisons and examples, images, or even short stories-illustrations included in the speech. This technique sounds especially advantageous in cases where you want to convey numerical information to the listener.

For example, the well-known Mikhail Khodorkovsky, commenting on the court’s conviction, which stated that he stole 347 million tons of oil, compared this amount of fuel with the volume that could fit in “a train that circles the earth three times along the equator.” It is difficult for an ordinary person to imagine how much 347 million tons of oil is. But we all know what a train looks like, and we can roughly imagine the circumference of the Earth, which means we know that this is a lot of oil. Such a comparison, used by the speaker, helps listeners to imagine numerical data and mentally relate them to quantities familiar to them, making abstract numbers tangible.

In addition to the usual comparison, there are also its individual forms, such as image and metaphor. Unlike the usual juxtaposition of two things in speech, these oratorical techniques have a creative flavor. As a rule, images are not created artificially by us. They come when we observe the world around us and build associations. If you want to decorate your speech with images, but are experiencing certain difficulties in producing the necessary imagery, we recommend that you familiarize yourself with a special lesson on our website aimed at developing associative thinking, and also practice solving doodles.

In some cases, to create images and analogies, you can even resort to short stories, if the speaking time allows you, of course.

However, you should not delay the moment of illustration; it is important to create a clear and vivid image that will remain in people’s memory, without overloading their attention with abstract reasoning

A similar method of comparison, which is based on the relationship of a part to the whole, is synecdoche (renaming)

. This is a way of expressing thoughts in which a word is used in a figurative meaning, namely, the concept of a known object or group of objects is replaced by a concept denoting a part of the named object or a single object. For example, when we hear the phrase “The White House and the Kremlin have different opinions,” we understand that we are not talking about architectural structures, but about representatives of certain political forces in the United States and Russia who did not agree on some issue. Synecdoche gives the speaker the opportunity to briefly and expressively convey his thought to the audience, leaving in their memory a certain image of what was said.

How to structure a speech according to the rules of oratory

In order to catch and hold the attention of the audience, competent speech must obey the rules of oratory, regardless of the goals, composition and conditions of the speech.

Briefly, the basics of oratory can be formulated as the basic rules to which any direction of rhetoric is subject.

Clear structure of the speech.

The structure and purpose of the speech delivered must be clear not only to the speaker, but also to the audience. The narrative is constructed in a logical sequence, when each subsequent thought follows from the previous one. In this case, the law of amplification is observed, when each subsequent argument is more weighty and convincing than the previous one.

Competent and expressive language.

Nothing kills a performance like speech with grammatical and spelling errors. Another disease of speakers is parasitic words that can drive listeners to white heat. The basis of oratory speech is its purity and literacy.

Objective and useful information.

The speaker has the right to his own point of view, which he convincingly conveys to the audience, but the information must be verified, truthful and objective.

Balance between emotions and facts.

Bare emotions do not inspire confidence in anyone, while at the same time, dry facts and figures are boring to listen to even for a trained public. Dilute the numbers with emotions and interesting stories, this will make the presentation balanced.

Laconic speech.

A long, confusing monologue with a lot of deviations from the topic causes boredom in listeners at best, and irritation at worst. Aerobatics when brevity is combined with information capacity. They say about such performances that “every word is worth its weight in gold.” Learn to strictly adhere to the rules, this is how you show respect for the audience and practice speaking strictly to the point.

Appropriate pauses.

Give special attention to pauses in oral speech. Short stops after key points or before particularly important information set a certain rhythm, the listener gets the opportunity to think about what he heard, and the speaker gets to collect his thoughts. Don’t be afraid of pauses and don’t fill them with mooing, groaning and other parasitic interjections.

Portrait of the audience.

Any speaker must take into account the nature and composition of the audience to which he speaks. There is a fine line here: you need to raise your listeners to your level, but at the same time speak in such a way that people understand you. The power of words in oratory depends on the impression the speaker makes on the audience. This includes intonation, appearance, and demeanor. It is necessary to maintain a balance, without stooping to familiarity or ingratiation, but also without raising the bar of demands on the audience.

Improvisation.

The speaker must take into account the response of the audience. A speaker who does not feel the “breath of the audience” will not convince anyone of anything. One of the essential qualities of a good speaker is flexibility and the ability to improvise. To develop the skill of improvisation, you need to work on logical and imaginative thinking, expand your horizons and vocabulary. The more immersed you are in the topic of your speech, the more natural the improvisation will be.

Prepared jokes, quotes, stories.

“Not a single improvisation comes to me as well as the one that I prepared for three days.” Mark Twain.

To liven up the presentation, experienced speakers do “homework” that helps defuse the situation, find the key to a difficult audience, or fill a forced pause due to a technical failure. It could be a funny story, a paradoxical fact, a joke or an anecdote on the topic.

The speech is decorated with quotes from recognized leaders. Jokes shouldn't be sight-read, but reading quotes is fine. To enhance the effect of a bright saying, write it down on a card, pause during your speech, take out the card and read out the quote.

Sense of humor.

A good joke relieves tension, puts the audience at ease with the speaker, and smoothes out the rough edges of speech. Witty speeches are remembered better. But humor must be appropriate and resonate with the situation.

Narrative style.

The style of oratory should take into account the situation, the type of rhetorical speech and the nature of the audience. The style should be appropriate and not cause confusion among the audience.

Lecture 14

FEATURES ORAL

PUBLIC SPEECH.

ORATORY

Plan

1. Oratory.

2. Personal qualities, knowledge, skills and abilities of the speaker.

3. Daily preparation for public speaking.

4. The main stages of preparation for a specific performance.

5. Giving a speech: the speaker’s work with the audience.

6. Basic types of oral public speech.

1. The term oratory is of Latin origin; its synonyms are the Greek word rhetoric and Russian eloquence . Classical rhetoric consisted of five parts: finding material, arranging it, verbalizing the speech, memorizing it, and finally delivering it. Rhetoric was developed by ancient scientists Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, and developed in the Middle Ages and in modern times. “A Brief Guide to Eloquence” by M.V. was of great importance for the development of Russian speech culture. Lomonosov, in which the rich linguistic material was creatively summarized. The scientist subordinated rhetorical rules and linguistic imagery to existing social needs. Rhetoric M.V. Lomonosova enriched oratory and literary Russian speech with a variety of stylistic devices.

Modern experts in rhetoric define oratory as the ability to substantiate a particular point of view, defend a position, prove the correctness of the ideas and positions put forward. The skill of mastering this art is an important factor of professional competence, the key to career growth in professional and social activities. The famous politician and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero wrote: “There are two types of art that can elevate a person to the highest level of honor: one is the art of a good commander, the other is the art of a good orator.” Today, of course, there are other types of art that can provide honor and respect in society. But the art of a good speaker still helps a person achieve high goals and occupy a high position in the social hierarchy.

2.People who want to improve in public speaking often face the question: will it work? What is the art of oratory made of? What qualities should a speaker have to effectively influence an audience? Perhaps a special oratorical talent is needed? Usually in such cases they are reassured by the famous statement of Cicero that poets are born, but orators are made.

What do modern experts think about the opportunity to become a speaker? The first, mandatory quality of a speaker is a high level of speech culture. Oratory is, first of all, the art of speaking, verbal mastery. A good speaker in his public speech uses all the requirements of speech culture: correctness, accuracy, purity, intelligibility, logic, richness, expressiveness, appropriateness.

In addition to high speech culture, the speaker must also have a whole set of personal qualities . Rhetoric experts name the following personal qualities: charm, naturalness, artistry, self-confidence, objectivity, genuine interest in the topic of speech. For the success of public speaking, personal qualities must be supplemented with special knowledge, skills and abilities . Knowledge forms the foundation of public speech. The speaker must know the subject of his speech well and understand all the intricacies of the problem under consideration. However, in order to be a good speaker, professional knowledge alone is not enough. Oratory is inseparable from the general culture of man. The speaker must be a highly erudite person, i.e. well-read, knowledgeable in the field of literature and art, science and technology, understand politics and economics, be able to analyze events occurring in their country and abroad, etc.

Successful public speaking is impossible without special skills and abilities. According to experts, a speaker must possess such skills as: selecting literature, studying literature, drawing up a plan for a speech, writing the text of a speech, the skill of self-control in front of an audience, and the skill of time orientation.

The skill of selecting literature has traditionally been associated with the ability to use catalogs (alphabetical, systematic, subject). Today, due to the widespread use of computers, there are great opportunities to use the worldwide Internet information system for selecting literature.

Literature study skills consist of the ability to identify from selected literature those sources that are subject to the most careful study, make the necessary extracts (synopses), comprehend and systematize the studied material.

The skill of drawing up a plan for a speech presupposes the ability to structure it and compositionally break it down. The plan is the relative arrangement of the parts, a brief program of the speech.

The skill of writing text is formed as a result of systematic work on composing the written text of one’s speeches. Working on a written text activates the speaker’s mental activity, allowing him to delve deeper into the essence of the problem and more accurately express his thoughts. While working on a written text, the speaker has the opportunity to select the most successful words and expressions and eliminate speech errors. You can return to the written text after some time to improve its content and form.

The skill of self-control in front of an audience comes down to the ability to overcome initial nervousness, “pull yourself together” at the beginning of a speech, not succumb to provocations and not lose control over oneself if someone in the audience tries to throw the speaker out of emotional balance through provocative questions or remarks. in order to disrupt the performance. The development of this skill is facilitated by regular practice of public speaking, as well as psychological training, which can be found in specialized literature.

The skill of time orientation presupposes the speaker’s control over the time frame of his speech. The speaker must be able to fit within the allotted time for speaking, give the audience the opportunity to ask questions that interest them and answer these questions. If the time for the speech is not set, then the speaker should be able to determine by the reaction of the audience whether the audience is ready to listen further or whether it is tired and it is time to end the speech.

A speaker’s skills consist of acquired knowledge and skills that allow him to solve complex creative problems in the process of preparing and delivering a speech.

This, for example, is the ability to independently draw up a plan for a speech and prepare a speech. Since a text prepared by other people, even better than the speaker, specialists in this field of knowledge, remains alien. For a text to sound good and have an effective impact on the audience, it must be “your own,” personally suffered through, passed through your mind and feelings.

Another important characteristic of a speaker is the ability to clearly and convincingly present material and answer questions from listeners. This skill is determined by how the speaker knows the subject of speech and to what extent he owns speech culture. The speaker should not avoid answering questions that are unpleasant for him. Answers to questions should be accurate and concise, but sufficiently reasoned. You should also take care of the correct form of answering questions; the answer should not offend the feelings of the author of the question.

One of the most difficult skills, in which, in fact, the art of a speaker is manifested, is the ability to establish and maintain contact with the audience . If there is no contact with the audience, then either the speech itself loses its meaning as a whole, or its effectiveness sharply decreases.

3.In practice, there are successful improvisations of oratorical speeches. However, if there is an opportunity for preparation, then it should definitely be used. Everyday preparation for a performance includes the following elements.

1) Self-education in the broadest sense of the word is the acquisition of new knowledge, replenishing it with information from various fields of technology and social life. The speaker must be aware of current events, expand his general horizons and deepen his knowledge in professional activities.

2) Creating your own archive. For this purpose, it is recommended to make extracts, compile notes of the sources being studied, make clippings from newspapers and magazines, collect proverbs and sayings, accumulate statistical material, and save questions that were asked after the next speech.

3) Improving the culture of public speech . As noted above, a good command of factual material is an important prerequisite for the success of oratory. But this material must be presented and conveyed to the consciousness of the listeners. And here the art of speech, the mastery of words, comes to the fore.

A person who, by the nature of his activity, systematically makes public speeches, must constantly pay attention to the culture of verbal communication, always strive to speak correctly, accurately, clearly and understandably, be able to clearly formulate his thoughts, figuratively and emotionally express his attitude to the subject. This is facilitated by active participation in business conversations, discussions of various problems among friends, relatives, colleagues, in seminars and practical classes, in debates and discussions.

4) Mastery of speech technique. The effectiveness of public speaking is directly related to the speaker’s mastery of speaking technique. The main elements of speech technique: phonation (speech) breathing, voice (correct voice formation skills) and diction (the degree of clarity in pronouncing words, syllables, sounds). Proper breathing while speaking, a well-trained voice, clear diction, and impeccable pronunciation allow the speaker to attract the attention of the audience and influence the consciousness, imagination and will of the listeners.

5) Critical analysis of the speech . Improving oratory skills is also facilitated by critical analysis of both the speeches of other speakers and your own. When listening to the speeches of other speakers, you need to pay attention not only to the content of the speech, but also to the form of presentation of the material: the linguistic design of the speech, oratorical techniques. At the same time, you should determine for yourself what you like and what causes a negative reaction, which words, speech patterns, actions, techniques contributed to the success of the speaker, and which, on the contrary, brought him failure.

6) Mastering public speaking techniques is an integral part of everyday training. It is important to know what stages a speaker’s activity consists of, how to prepare for a meeting with listeners, how to structure a speech, and what techniques to use to manage the audience. All this knowledge is contained in the literature on public speaking.

4. Each speech on topic, purpose, nature of the audience, etc. has its own characteristics and requires special training. Therefore, when preparing for a specific performance, you need to pay attention to the following steps .

1) Choosing a problem and topic for speech is one of the most important initial stages of preparing a public speech. An issue is a thought worthy of discussion, an idea that has social significance or is significant to a particular group of people. A topic is a side, an aspect of the problem chosen for discussion. For example, the problem: “How to improve the well-being of our people?” Topic: “Can private enterprise improve the well-being of the people?” The topic formulation must meet a number of requirements :

– the topic must be formulated clearly and concisely, since long formulations, including unfamiliar words and expressions, can cause a negative attitude towards the upcoming speech;

– the chosen wording should reflect the content of the speech;

– the wording should also attract the attention of listeners and interest them.

2) Determining the purpose of the speech . The goal is what the speaker is striving for, what result he wants to achieve: whether to pose a new problem, refute someone else’s point of view, set people up for a certain line of behavior, etc. So, in the topic of the speech “Can private enterprise improve the well-being of the people?” the speaker can set himself a goal: to convince people not to interfere with private entrepreneurs, but, on the contrary, to support their efforts.

3) Selection of materials for the presentation. The content of the speech, as already noted, plays a critical role in its effectiveness. Therefore, the speaker must collect material that is interesting and useful for the audience. Where can a speaker get it from?

If this is an experienced speaker, then he turns to his own knowledge and experience, to his archive. New ideas, information, facts, examples for your speech can be found by referring to official documents, reference literature, scientific and popular science literature, articles from newspapers and magazines, materials posted on the Internet; radio and television broadcasts, results of sociological surveys, fiction, personal contacts, conversations, interviews, reflections and observations.

4) Development of a speech plan . A speech plan is a brief program that determines the order in which the material will be presented. At different stages of preparation, plans are drawn up that differ in purpose and purpose: preliminary, working, main.

5) Work on the composition . Composition is the structure of a performance, the relationship of its individual parts with the entire performance as a single whole. If the ratio of the parts of the speech is violated, then the effectiveness of speech decreases sharply.

There are general principles for constructing a speech that a speaker should follow:

– principle of consistency . Each thought expressed must follow from the previous one;

– principle of expediency . The speaker and listeners must be aware of the direction of the speech along the following chain: problem - topic - thesis - arguments - purpose of the speech;

– principle of amplification . The speech impact on the listener should increase from the beginning of the speech to its end. Experienced speakers make their strongest points at the end of their speech;

– the principle of economy is the desire to achieve a goal in the simplest, most rational way with minimal effort, time, and verbal means;

– principle of effectiveness . The speech should contain some conclusion offered to the listeners, a call to action, and recommendations for further behavior.

The most common structure of an oral presentation is considered to be three-part , including an introduction, main part and conclusion .

The purpose of the introduction is to interest the audience, to attract the attention of listeners to the topic of the speech. In the introduction, a distinction is made between beginning and beginning. The purpose of the beginning is to prepare the audience for perception, to attract attention. Experienced speakers use proverbs and sayings, popular expressions, and interesting examples as a starting point. The opening is aimed at transitioning to the presentation of the main part of the speech, at introducing the audience to the points of the plan.

The most significant part is the main part of the speech. It sets out the main material, formulates and proves the substantive provisions.

The structure of the main part depends on the speaker’s chosen method of presenting the material. methods of presenting material are traditionally used in oratory :

– inductive (from specific facts to generalized conclusions);

– deductive (from general provisions to specific facts);

– analogies (drawing parallels with what is well known to listeners);

– concentric (arrangement of material around the main problem);

– stepwise (sequential presentation of one issue after another);

– historical (presentation of material in chronological order).

The choice of method is determined by the communication situation. It is recommended to use different methods in one speech. Whatever methods the speaker uses, his speech must be reasoned and demonstrative.

Argumentation . Let's take a closer look at what argumentation is. Argumentation refers to the process of presenting evidence to substantiate an idea. The speaker’s task is not only to offer a certain system of arguments in defense of an idea, but also to ensure its understandability and accessibility for the audience.

Arguments are divided into pros and cons. Arguments in favor should convince the audience that they are truthful, based on authoritative sources, and close to the opinions established in the audience. Arguments “against” should convince the audience that the positions criticized by the speaker do not have the same features that are highlighted for the arguments “for”. The strength of an argument is a relative concept, as it depends on the situation, the emotional and psychological state of the listeners and many other factors - gender, age, professional training of the audience. However, there are several typical arguments that are considered strong by most audiences. Such arguments usually include: scientific axioms, provisions of laws and official documents, laws of nature, conclusions confirmed experimentally, expert opinions, references to recognized authorities, quotations from authoritative sources, eyewitness testimony, statistical data.

According to the methods of influencing the consciousness and feelings of listeners, arguments are divided into two groups:

1) rational arguments, or arguments “to the point”;

2) irrational (psychological) arguments, or arguments to a person.

Rational arguments include facts, appeals to authorities, laws, theories, axioms accepted in a given society.

Irrational arguments include appeals to the feelings, desires, and interests of the addressee.

The methods of argumentation include - up, one-sided and two-sided argumentation.

Top-down and bottom-up argumentation. Top-down argumentation is when the speaker makes the strongest arguments first, then the less strong ones, and ends the speech with an emotional request, motivation, or conclusion. The advantages of top-down argumentation are that it makes it easier to attract and retain the attention of the audience, makes thoughts actively work at the beginning and feelings at the end, the first arguments are better remembered.

Top-down argumentation is most effective with a poorly prepared and uninterested audience. Weak arguments with top-down argumentation look better than with other methods of argumentation.

Rising argumentation suggests that the argument and the intensity of feelings increase towards the end of the speech. This method is effective in a prepared, highly interested audience. It is effective if: the atmosphere in the audience is calm and they are ready to listen to the speaker; the idea that needs to be justified is complex; the problem for this audience is not completely resolved; the audience can draw their own conclusions.

One-sided and two-sided argumentation. One-sided argumentation assumes that:

– either only arguments “for” are presented (pure positive);

– or only arguments “against” are presented (pure negativity).

With two-sided argumentation, the listener is given the opportunity to compare points of view, choose one of two alternatives, presenting opposing points of view.

A variation of the method of two-sided argumentation is the so-called method of counter-argumentation, when the speaker presents his arguments as a refutation of the opponent’s arguments, having previously stated them.

When selecting arguments to prove the position being put forward, the speaker needs to remember the requirements for arguments . Arguments must be true, consistent, evidence-based regardless of the thesis, and sufficient.

The optimal number of arguments when proving a thesis is considered to be “ three ”: one argument is simply a fact; You can object to two arguments, but it’s more difficult to do so with three arguments. The third argument has a decisive impact: starting from the fourth argument, the audience no longer perceives the argument as a system, but as many arguments. At the same time, the impression arises that the speaker is trying to put pressure on the audience, “persuading.” There is an old saying: he who proves a lot proves nothing. "Many" starts with the fourth argument.

The final part of the speech - the conclusion - largely determines the effectiveness of the speech. It is known that in the process of speech perception the “law of edge” operates, i.e. what is stated at the beginning and at the end of the message is remembered. Therefore, in conclusion, it is recommended to repeat the main idea for the sake of which the speech is made, summarize the most important provisions, and draw conclusions.

Writing and mastering the text of a speech. A short speech can be simply memorized, but a long report or lecture is difficult to memorize. In this case, it is necessary to prepare the text in such a way that you can deliver a speech without reading the text, but only “relying on it.” The process of mastering the text for such a speech involves working with it in the following stages :

1) compose the full text;

2) comprehend and retell it in your own words;

3) mark up the text, highlight the main points of the speech;

4) number the main questions;

5) highlight surnames, titles, statistical data, the beginning and end of quotes, and identify examples.

5. When delivering a speech, the central role is played by establishing contact and capturing the attention of the audience. What are the factors that determine the speaker’s contact with the audience ?

The content side of the speech can be put in first place: the relevance of the topic, the novelty of its coverage, the nature of the argument.

No less important is the communicative state of the speaker, i.e. those characteristics of a speaker that influence his ability to establish and maintain contact with an audience. Public speaking experts identify the following actions necessary for successful interaction with the audience:

– prohibit thinking about extraneous things;

– focus your attention on the listeners;

– carefully monitor their reactions;

– invest all physical and moral strength into speech action;

– have an offensive, strong-willed attitude;

– strive with all your might to achieve the goal of your performance.

Contact with the audience depends on the nature of communication with the audience. There are special speech actions whose purpose is to establish and maintain contact. These include: address, greeting, compliment, farewell. An effective oratorical technique is the dialogization of a speech: constructing a speech in the form of questions and answers.

A proven means of relaxing and distracting the audience's attention is humor. Experienced speakers introduce jokes, puns, and anecdotes into the serious content of the speech.

Voice techniques play an important role in managing the audience, i.e. raising or lowering the tone of the voice, changing its volume, tempo of speech. A pause can also serve as an effective means, which gives significance to what has been said or what will be said.

The most important role in establishing and maintaining contact is played by taking into account the characteristics of the audience, which dictate to the speaker both the content of the speech and the form of its presentation.

Let's consider what possible characteristics of the audience. The audience is a complex socio-psychological community in which mechanisms of infection, conformity, and imitation operate.

The audience is characterized by a sense of community, which manifests itself in a certain mood of the listeners. Some listeners unconsciously repeat the actions of those around them (the mechanism of infection), others consciously reproduce the behavior patterns of their neighbors (the mechanism of imitation), and still others are influenced by the opinion and behavior of the majority of those present (the mechanism of conformity). As a result of the action of these mechanisms, a general mood is created in the audience, which significantly affects the establishment of contact with the audience.

The development of these processes depends on the degree of homogeneity of the audience and its socio-demographic characteristics. Male, female, children's, youth, and elderly audiences perceive both the content and the speaker's demeanor differently. It is known that the more homogeneous the audience, the more unanimous the listeners’ reaction to the speaker’s speech.

The quantitative composition plays a significant role in the behavior of the audience. The reactions of people in large and small audiences are different. In a large audience, the socio-psychological mechanisms of infection, imitation, and conformity operate most forcefully. The larger the audience, the more intense the unification processes take place within it. And instead of becoming fragmented, it becomes more homogeneous. A large audience is better manageable and represents a fertile object for manipulation.

A small audience does not represent a single monolith. Here everyone remains an individual and has the opportunity to express their individuality.

6. Each speaker, when preparing for a public speech, must clearly understand what goal he is pursuing with his speech. In accordance with this, he chooses the type of public speech. Experts identify the following goals : to inform, comply with protocol, convince, entertain. Based on this, we can talk about the following types of public speaking: informational speech, protocol-etiquette speech, persuasive speech and entertaining speech.

Information speech. The purpose of this speech is to give new information about a particular subject, deepen knowledge, broaden horizons. The main genres of informational speech are public lecture, reporting report, discussion of a project, etc.

Protocol and etiquette speech . The purpose of this speech is to observe the traditions of communication in this situation, to fulfill the requirements of etiquette and ritual. The following types of speeches can be considered: greeting and speech at an official meeting of guests, official congratulations to the hero of the day, a funeral speech, a speech appreciating the merits of someone, etc.

Persuasive speech. The purpose of a persuasive speech is to encourage the audience to accept the speaker’s opinion, his assessment of a fact or event. In persuasive speech, two main types can be distinguished: a) argumentative speech and b) agitation speech.

Argumentative speech.

The general goal of an argumentative speech is to convince the audience to agree with the speaker on a controversial issue, to prove that the speaker is right. A type of argumentative speech is judicial speech. The main function of judicial speech (lawyer or prosecutor) is influence.

Propaganda speech.

The purpose of a propaganda speech is to motivate listeners to take some action based on emotional argumentation. Examples of campaign speeches include speeches at election meetings, advertising speeches, speeches in support of certain social movements. Rally speeches occupy a special place among propaganda speeches. These are, as a rule, speeches with political appeals and protest.

Entertaining speech . The purpose of an entertaining speech is to entertain, amuse, amuse listeners, and give them the opportunity to have a good time. Examples of entertaining speeches: a speech at a banquet, a toast, a story in a company about a funny incident.

In conclusion, we offer some of the most general tips on public speaking .

1. Speak only when you have something to say and when you are confident in the importance or usefulness of your speech.

2. The success of a speech largely depends on whether you can immediately find an approach to the listeners and establish emotional contact with them.

3. Do not start your speech as soon as you are given the floor. You should take an initial pause of 15-20 seconds. A pause will allow you to “gather the views” of the listeners and serves as an invitation to conversation. Then smile and greet the audience.

4. Say the first words not into emptiness, but looking at some listener you like, and as soon as you see his friendly look in response, turn your gaze to another person and establish contact with him, and so on. Don't stare at individuals for too long.

5. Find an interesting start to your speech. It should be entertaining, relate to the content of the speech, and most importantly, create an emotional contact with the audience. It could be a real-life incident, an unexpected question, an interesting fact, an impressive figure, an original quote, a joke or a witty remark.

6. Speak expressively, since the expressiveness of speech - changing intonation, colorful verbal images, original comparisons, apt expressions - can captivate the listener.

7. Use the entire vocabulary of your vocabulary, try to exclude clerical words and colloquialisms from your story.

8. Be sure to take logical, justified pauses in your speech, especially after important information. It is during pauses that what has been said is comprehended, the opportunity to ask a question arises, and attention is mobilized.

9. Connect words with gestures. Gestures are good when they are natural. If gesturing isn't your thing, don't force it. Some gestures, although they help the speaker relieve nervous tension (clasped hands in front, touching himself, rubbing his fingers, playing with his hand), but irritate the audience. You should get rid of such gestures.

10. Have humorous sketches in stock - funny stories from the lives of great people, paradoxical examples, historical anecdotes. Usually they cause revival, relieve fatigue, and make you listen. However, a sense of humor is a natural gift. And if it is not developed, then the intonation, tempo of speech, and sound strength should be changed.

11. If you notice that the listeners’ attention is weakening, then you should change the intonation, tempo of speech, and sound strength.

12. As you know, the last impression is the strongest, so at the end of the speech its main idea should be stated. To remain in memory, the ending must be bright and expressive. This can be an aphoristic statement, a call or a wish.

Questions for self-control:

1. What is public speaking?

2. What does successful public speaking depend on?

3. What elements make up the daily preparation for a performance?

4. Name and describe the main stages of preparation for a specific performance.

5. Tell us about the basic principles of constructing a speech.

6. What are the methods of presenting the material of the speech?

7. Talk about argumentation and its methods in public speech.

8. Tell us about the factors that determine the speaker’s contact with the audience.

9. Tell us about the main types of oral public speech.

Oratorical techniques

Features of oratory are associated with the mechanisms of influence of the speaker’s speech on the audience here and now. Rhetoric is oral speech, and most people do not perceive information well by ear. Oratorical techniques stimulate the attention and imaginative thinking of listeners, and help to assimilate the material.

• When presenting complex material or dry digital data, use visual comparisons and examples that evoke figurative associations.
• Explain a complex concept several times , coming up with new images and comparisons. Use different forms of repetition to reinforce the material.
• Use means of artistic expression that make speech figurative and help the perception of information: allegory - an explanation of an abstract concept through a concrete image, all fables are based on allegories;
• antithesis - a sharp opposition of concepts, the contrast of images makes speech bright and emotional;
• hyperbole - deliberate exaggeration helps to place emphasis, but the main thing here is not to go too far.

Oratory in life

The ability to speak in front of an audience will come in handy. This gives strength, confidence and healthy optimism. It becomes possible to see further prospects for actions and feel the result in advance. Public speaking improves the quality of life. A person opens up to new impressions and always finds the right words to explain his own position to his interlocutor.

Regular performances build character and help you concentrate on the main thing, without being distracted by possible trifles. The ability to communicate coherently in life is worth a lot. Most people get confused if they have to talk about something they have no idea about. Only a person trained for success attracts positive changes in life.

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Two ways to develop speaking abilities

Every person without serious speech pathologies is capable of learning rhetoric; all it takes is time and perseverance. Perhaps the only quality that does not contribute to mastering the art of oratory is laziness.

Honed eloquence skills play into our hands in different areas of life and situations: during an interview, project presentation, answering an exam, when delivering ceremonial speeches, reports, etc.

There are 2 ways to master rhetoric:

• Regular self-study will help you master the skills of oratory, as they once helped even the tongue-tied Demosthenes. First of all, this is work on the technique and culture of speech. The more you practice in front of a mirror or phone camera, the freer, cleaner and more harmonious your monologues will be. What you can work on at home: Practice calm, measured breathing, low speech rate, lively intonation without falsehood.
• Develop the strength of your voice and clear diction.
• Learn to work with texts: paraphrase the content of small passages in your own words, concentrating the meaning in one sentence;
• look for key phrases in the texts and formulate them in your own way;
• retell what you read, highlighting only the most important things.